The Bar and Beverage Book, 5th Edition by Chris Thomas and Costas Katsigris - PDFCOFFEE.COM (2024)

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FIFTH EDITION

THE BAR & BEVERAGE BOOK Costas Katsigris Chris Thomas

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright © 2012, 2007, 2003 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax 978-646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, 201-748-6011, fax 201-748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during the next academic year. These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party. Upon completion of the review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at www.wiley.com/go/ returnlabel. Outside of the United States, please contact your local representative. For general information on our other products and services, or technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at 800-762-2974, outside the United States at 317572-3993 or fax 317-572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. For more information about Wiley products, visit our Web site at http://www.wiley.com. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Katsigris, Costas. The bar and beverage book / Costas Katsigris, Chris Thomas. — 5th ed. p. cm. Includes index. Summary: “The Bar and Beverage Book explains how to manage the beverage option of a restaurant, bar, hotel, country club—any place that serves beverages to customers. It provides readers with the history of the beverage industry and appreciation of wine, beer, and spirits; information on equipping, staffing, managing, and marketing a bar; and the purchase and mixology of beverages. New topics in this edition include changes to regulations regarding the service of alcohol, updated sanitation guidelines, updates to labor laws and the employment of staff, and how to make your operation more profitable. New trends in spirits, wine, and beer are also covered”— Provided by publisher. ISBN 978-0-470-24845-4 (acid-free paper) 1. Bartending. I. Thomas, Chris, 1956- II. Title. TX950.7.K37 2012 641.8'74—dc22 2010030441 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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CONTENTS PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

vii xiii

CHAPTER 1

THE BEVERAGE INDUSTRY, YESTERDAY AND TODAY

1

THE EARLIEST WINES 2 • WINE AND RELIGION 4 • A BRIEF HISTORY OF BEER 5 • DISTILLED SPIRITS IN BRIEF 7 • ALCOHOL AND HEALTH IN HISTORY 9 • THE TAVERN: PLEASURES AND POLITICS 10 • PROHIBITION AND ITS EFFECTS 11 • TODAY’S BEVERAGESERVICE INDUSTRY 16 • SUMMING UP 25 • POINTS TO PONDER 26 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 27 • A CONVERSATION WITH . . . BRET STANLEY 28

CHAPTER 2

RESPONSIBLE ALCOHOL SERVICE

31

ALCOHOL AND HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 32 • ALCOHOL AND HUMAN HEALTH 35 • ALCOHOL AND NUTRITION 41 • ALCOHOLISM AND OTHER DRINKING PROBLEMS 43 • LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS 46 • SOLUTIONS FROM A CONCERNED INDUSTRY 55 • MAKING A PLAN 60 • CRISIS MANAGEMENT 66 • SUMMING UP 67 • POINTS TO PONDER 68 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 68 • A CONVERSATION WITH . . . CHRIS HOOVER 70

CHAPTER 3

CREATING AND MAINTAINING A BAR BUSINESS

73

TARGETING YOUR CLIENTELE 75 • SELLING HIGH-END SPIRITS 80 • LOCATION AND MARKET FEASIBILITY 85 • ATMOSPHERE AND DÉCOR 88 • DÉCOR REQUIREMENTS 93 • LAYOUT AND DESIGN 94 • THE BAR: SIZE, SHAPE, PLACEMENT 103 • WORKING WITH A DESIGNER OR CONSULTANT 114 • SUMMING UP 117 • POINTS TO PONDER 118 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 119 • A CONVERSATION WITH . . . TOM TELLEZ 120

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 4

BAR EQUIPMENT

123

UNDERBAR AND BACKBAR EQUIPMENT 124 • REFRIGERATION NEEDS 136 • BAR TOOLS AND SMALL EQUIPMENT 144 • GLASSWARE 156 • POINT-OF-SALE TERMINALS 164 • GENERAL EQUIPMENT GUIDELINES 167 • SUMMING UP 168 • POINTS TO PONDER 169 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 169

CHAPTER 5

THE BEVERAGES: SPIRITS

171

TYPES OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES 172 • SELECTING SPIRITS FOR THE BAR 177 • HOW SPIRITS ARE MADE 179 • BROWN GOODS: WHISKEY AND SCOTCH 183 • WHITE GOODS: VODKA, GIN, RUM, AND TEQUILA 194 • AFTER-DINNER DRINKS 207 • LIQUEURS, CORDIALS, AND MORE 215 • SUMMING UP 224 • POINTS TO PONDER 225 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 225 • A CONVERSATION WITH . . . SHARON GOLDMAN 226

CHAPTER 6

WINE APPRECIATION

229

WINE IN THE UNITED STATES: A BRIEF HISTORY 230 • TYPES OF WINE 231 • THE GRAPES 235 • HOW WINES ARE MADE 240 • HOW WINES ARE NAMED 248 • A WHIRLWIND WORLD WINE TOUR 251 • SUMMING UP 271 • POINTS TO PONDER 272 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 272

CHAPTER 7

WINE SALES AND SERVICE

275

TASTING WINES 276 • CREATING A WINE LIST 279 • THE ROLE OF THE SERVER 289 • SERVING WINES 291 • WINE STORAGE 302 • WINE LIST FOLLOW-UP 303 • SUMMING UP 304 • POINTS TO PONDER 305 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 305 • A CONVERSATION WITH . . . KEVIN SETTLES 306

CHAPTER 8

BEER

309

A BRIEF HISTORY OF BEER 310 • BEER-MAKING BASICS 318 • TYPES OF BEER 326 • SELLING BEER 337 • STORING BEER 343 • SERVING BEER 350 • SUMMING UP 354 • POINTS TO PONDER 355 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 356

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CONTENTS

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CHAPTER 9

SANITATION AND BAR SETUP

357

SANITATION 358 • LIQUOR SUPPLIES 363 • MIXES 365 • GARNISHES AND CONDIMENTS 376 • SERVICE ACCESSORIES 384 • OPENING THE “BANK” 385 • BEHINDTHE-BAR BEHAVIOR 387 • CLOSING THE BAR 390 • SUMMING UP 394 • POINTS TO PONDER 395 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 395 • A CONVERSATION WITH . . . DALE DEGROFF 396

CHAPTER 10

MIXOLOGY, PART ONE

399

A BRIEF HISTORY OF MIXOLOGY 400 • ABOUT MIXED DRINKS 401 • DRINK FAMILIES 407 • COFFEE DRINKS AND HOT LIBATIONS 428 • SUMMING UP 431 • POINTS TO PONDER 432 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 432

CHAPTER 11

MIXOLOGY, PART TWO

433

THE MARTINI-MANHATTAN FAMILY 434 • SOURS AND SWEET-AND-SOUR COCKTAILS 439 • SHOOTERS AND SHOTS 448 • TROPICAL DRINKS 450 • CREAM DRINKS 451 • OTHER DAIRY DRINKS 452 • BLENDED AND FROZEN DRINKS 455 • ALCOHOL-FREE ALTERNATIVES 458 • FILLING DRINK ORDERS 459 • DEVELOPING DRINK MENUS AND SPECIALTY DRINKS 460 • SUMMING UP 466 • POINTS TO PONDER 466 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 467 • A CONVERSATION WITH . . . GEORGE KIDDER 468

CHAPTER 12

EMPLOYEE MANAGEMENT

471

STAFF POSITIONS 471 • HIRING AND SCHEDULING 482 • TRAINING THE STAFF 491 • LABOR AND EMPLOYMENT LAWS 502 • COMPENSATION AND BENEFITS 507 • PAYROLL TAXES, BENEFITS, AND PERQUISITES 516 • SUMMING UP 519 • POINTS TO PONDER 520 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 520

CHAPTER 13

PURCHASING, RECEIVING, STORAGE, AND INVENTORY 521 PURCHASING IS PLANNING 523 • PLACING THE LIQUOR ORDER 539 • RECEIVING THE LIQUOR ORDER 541 • STORAGE 543 • ISSUING LIQUOR 546 • INVENTORY 548 • PURCHASING BAR SUPPLIES 556 • SUMMING UP 557 • POINTS TO PONDER 558 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 558 • A CONVERSATION WITH . . . GEORGE MAJDALANI 560

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 14

PLANNING FOR PROFIT MANAGING THE NUMBERS 564 • PRICING FOR PROFIT 586 BEVERAGE CONTROLS 604 • BAR 612 • SUMMING UP

563

• A PRE-OPENING BUDGET 565 • THE CONTROL PHASE 577 • ESTABLISHING PRODUCT CONTROLS 600 • ESTABLISHING ESTABLISHING CASH CONTROLS 609 TECHNOLOGY AT THE 616 • POINTS TO PONDER 617 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 617

CHAPTER 15

MANAGING YOUR BAR BUSINESS

619

CREATING A BUSINESS PLAN 620 • MARKETING A BAR BUSINESS 625 • MARKETING TOOLS TO ATTRACT CUSTOMERS 634 • PRICING AS A PROMOTIONAL TOOL 642 • PROTECTING AND EXPANDING YOUR CONCEPT 643 • SUMMING UP 645 • POINTS TO PONDER 646 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 647 • A CONVERSATION WITH . . . JULIE HANSEN 648

CHAPTER 16

REGULATIONS

651

REGULATIONS: AN OVERVIEW 652 • GETTING READY TO OPEN 655 • WHAT, WHEN, AND TO WHOM YOU MAY SELL 659 • CHECKING IDENTIFICATION 663 • REGULATIONS THAT AFFECT PURCHASING 664 • REGULATIONS THAT AFFECT OPERATIONS 666 • SUMMING UP 678 • POINTS TO PONDER 679 • TERMS OF THE TRADE 680

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GLOSSARY

681

INDEX

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PREFACE This is the Fifth Edition of The Bar and Beverage Book—and it seems the industry gets more complex and interesting with every revision. No matter how dismal the economic forecast, people remain willing to risk it all to start their own bar and restaurant businesses. No matter how many brands the multinational corporations swallow up, there are plucky craft distillers, microbrewers and boutique winemakers all over the world, determined to enter the market with new and exciting products. The changes and personalities are impossible to keep up with in textbook form, but what we attempt to do is provide the basics—and entice you to continue to follow the industry news on your own.

To the Student There are many jobs other than bartending in the beverage industry, and we have tried to introduce them to you, particularly in the question-and-answer segments found between some chapters. Our goal is that, when your college studies are done, you won’t be able to part with The Bar and Beverage Book —you’ll need it in your “real world” job!

To the Instructor The Bar and Beverage Book presents a comprehensive treatment of a topic that is ever-changing. We’ve tried to organize the material in logical, sequential teaching units; there is also an Instructor’s Manual (ISBN 978-0-470-65040-0) to help you create both in-class activities and enrichment assignments beyond the classroom walls. The Instructor’s Manual, as well as an electronic test bank in Respondus and complete set of PowerPoint slides, is available to qualified instructors on the Wiley website at www.wiley.com/college/katsigris.

To the Prospective (or Current) Bar Owner Use this book as a springboard for testing your own ideas, freshening a current site or concept that’s not working as well as you know it could, and creating a solid, moneymaking, crowd-pleasing business.

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PREFACE

Chapter Organization With the goal of effectively aiding the teaching and bar and beverage management, we have created a 16-chapter book to cover all the key areas of successful bar management. The chapters are organized as follows: Chapter 1, The Beverage Industry, Yesterday and Today: After a brief history of alcohol and its uses in celebrations, religion, medicine, and everyday life, we have updated bar trends, from airport bars to hookah bars to hotel minibars. Who’s drinking what, and how much? You’ll find out in Chapter 1. Chapter 2, Responsible Alcohol Service: This chapter includes highlights from a growing body of research about the health benefits of moderate alcohol consumption. Red wines and dark beers, for instance, can benefit heart health. However, science also offers new findings about the dangers of alcohol, particularly to adolescents, and the problem of binge drinking among young people. For those who own and work in bars, alcohol abuse is a legal issue as well as a health concern. In Chapter 2, the dramshop, third-party liability, and drunken driving laws are discussed, with updated information about how the industry is working to promote responsible service. Chapter 3, Creating and Maintaining a Bar Business, and Chapter 4, Bar Equipment: These chapters encompass the many details of how to plan and organize a new bar business. There is new demographic information about potential customer segments, and Chapter 3 is peppered with examples of successful bars around the United States. Chapter 4 describes the tools necessary for today’s top trend—drinks made strictly from scratch—which requires extraknowledge about ingredient preparation. Chapter 5, The Beverages: Spirits: People appreciate any product more when they understand how much effort went into developing it, and spirits are no exception. Most have fascinating histories, which are shared in this chapter. We’ve added more information on the marketing powerhouses behind some of the major liquor brands, and details about such trendy products as cachaça, light whiskey, and absinthe. Chapter 6, Wine Appreciation: Our winemaking discussion in this chapter features the recent emergence of China as a major wine importing and wine-producing nation. Asian sake and shochu also are part of this chapter, although they are created by methods more similar to brewing and distilling. We have included descriptions of more types of grapes used in winemaking, and updated the American Viticultural Areas (AVAs) to reflect those most recently designated. Chapter 7, Wine Sales and Service: Here, we take the next step and open a few bottles! You will learn how to open, taste, decant, and store both still and sparkling wines. This is also the place to discover how to create a wine list and by-the-glass program, and how to price wines for profitability. Chapter 8, Beer: Most breweries are small businesses and in Chapter 8, we explain the size classifications of breweries and what that means in a very

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PREFACE

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competitive industry. The macrobrewers may be buying up competitors left and right, but this is microbrewers’ time to shine, with sales of unique, specialty beers appealing to consumers who are thirsty for new, interesting products. If you don’t yet know a Witbier from an India Pale Ale, this is the chapter for you. Advice for creating a beer list, beer storage and sales tips round out the chapter. Chapter 9, Sanitation and Bar Setup: This chapter covers the basic bar sanitation and setup procedures (known as mise en place) and the importance of creating these routines, including HACCP-based food-safety guidelines. New to this edition: an extensive discussion of options for bar mixes and juices, an introduction to agua fresca, and the debate about serving bottled water versus filtered tap water. Chapter 10, Mixology, Part One, and Chapter 11, Mixology, Part Two: There are two chapters on mixology. Here, the bestselling cocktails are divided into “families,” with recipes and step-by-step instructions for mixing them. Additionally, Chapter 11 contains advice for creating signature drinks and drink menus. Bars are businesses, and business owners have numerous challenges that stretch far beyond their ability to mix a great drink. In the latter chapters of the book, we delve into the following everyday priorities: Chapter 12, Employee Management: Creating a workforce means writing job descriptions, interviewing and hiring, training, calculating wages, paying benefits, and deciding on a dress code for the staff. Here, we have updated the major federal employment-related laws. Chapter 13, Purchasing, Receiving, Storage, and Inventory: The traditional three-tier alcohol sales and distribution system in the United States is under siege from the Internet and, in some cases, the newly legalized ability of producers to ship directly to end users. These developments are discussed, along with ordering and inventory methods and how to calculate inventory turnover rates. Chapter 14, Planning for Profit: Get out the calculator! You will learn how to determine a break-even point, read income statements and budget deviation forms, and price your drinks profitably. Product controls to preventing theft and keep costs down are covered here, as well as new information about pointof-sale (POS) systems. Chapter 15, Managing Your Business: Today, marketing is a combination of Internet savvy and old-fashioned hospitality, both of which are discussed in this chapter. We also focus on how to create a business plan and use it as a touchstone for ongoing operations, and what to do to protect your successful concept from being stolen or copied. Chapter 16. Regulations: The wet/dry landscape is changing constantly, and this chapter includes the latest changes. There are a few new state tax changes, and some updates to federal product labeling guidelines. Insurance coverage and audits are discussed, as well.

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PREFACE

What’s New in this Edition The Fifth Edition of The Bar and Beverage Book has been revised and updated to explore new trends in bar and beverage management and discusses changes to the industry since the last edition. In addition to some of the chapter-specific changes noted within chapter organization above, this new edition also includes: 䡲 䡲

䡲 䡲

New medical research about the effects of alcohol on the human body and brain. New demographic trends and their potential effects on consumer spending habits, employee hiring practices and more. New strides in environmental and social responsibility: eco-friendly packaging, alternative bottle closures, “green” winemaking, health-related labeling requirements, and more. New instructions for creating a pre-opening budget and prime cost worksheet, and for determining workers’ productivity on a given day or shift. New uses of technology, from POS systems to checking IDs to Internet marketing. New focus on classic drinks, equipment and techniques, from selecting a muddler to using fresh juices and mixes.

Additional Resources The accompanying Instructor’s Manual (978-0-470-65040-0) for this text includes teaching goals, major points of emphasis, outside resources and enrichment exercises, a Test Bank of chapter quizzes, and page references to the Points to Ponder questions in the text. A Companion Website (www.wiley.com/college/katsigris) provides additional resources as well as enabling instructors to download the electronic files for the Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, and PowerPoint slides. The Test Bank for this text has been specifically formatted for Respondus, an easy-to-use software for creating and managing exams that can be printed to paper or published directly to Blackboard, WebCT, Desire2Learn, eCollege, ANGEL, and other eLearning systems. Instructors who adopt The Bar & Beverage Book, Fifth Edition, can download the Test Bank for free. Additional Wiley resources also can be uploaded into your LMS course at no charge. To view and access these resources and the Test Bank, visit www.wiley.com/college/katsigris, select The Bar and Beverage Book, and click on “Visit the Companion Sites.”

Final Thoughts As we put the finishing touches on this edition, the bar and beverage news just keeps coming: 䡲

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The Pennsylvania Liquor Control Board is studying ways to sell wines from temperature-controlled vending machines. The machines hold 500 bottles and can accept credit and debit cards; the challenge is ensuring that minors and individuals who’ve already had too much to drink won’t be able to use them.

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Why stop at having Starbucks counters in grocery stores? Pennsylvania has also permitted several supermarkets to open casual bars. The stores must purchase restaurant liquor licenses and can sell cocktails and snacks, wine, beer and carryout six-packs. An Oregon server’s complaint about tip pooling being unfair went all the way to the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals—where it was found to be legal, as long as establishments don’t count a portion of the tips as wages. More beer brands are offering sampler packs or variety packs, priced slightly higher than their typical 6- or 12-packs, allowing consumers to mix and match “flavors.”

We hope our work has helped inspire bar owners and managers over the years, and that most are still in business because they’ve taken our advice! Costas (“Gus”) Katsigris Chris Thomas

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The longer this book has been in print, the longer the list of individuals to whom we are grateful for their input, from opinions and research to photos, charts and text boxes. They have added so much to our efforts, making the book a better learning tool than it ever could have been without their kind assistance. In addition to the people mentioned in the first four editions of The Bar and Beverage Book, we would like to include the following names, listed in alphabetical order. Bob Allen, owner of Dallas’ popular West End Pub, has kept us continuously upto-date on the trends in single-unit bar operation. His grasp of what moves— and what doesn’t—in an urban bar is truly encyclopedic. John Bratcher of Rockridge Wine Traders made contributions about regional wines and offered his knowledge of the Texas wine industry. Pat Bullard is a computer lab associate in the University of North Texas’ Food and Hospitality Department. She continues to help Gus improve his computer skills as he fumbled his way through the revisions for this edition! Jeanne Huff, a Boise writer and long-time reporter for The Idaho Statesman, helped update the research in the first three chapters as well as the betweenchapter interviews. Jaime Jurado, director of brewing operations for the Gambrinus Company, provided insight on how regional beers are made and marketed. His company has made Shiner Beer a commodity in Texas. Joe Milano, mixologist at the Rosewood Mansion on Turtle Creek in Dallas, Texas. Tony Pecoraro, the Texas division sales manager for Glazer’s (a large wholesale distributor), helped with details on current trends in Champagne and other sparkling wines. Brian Robinson, review editor and media contact at The Wormwood Society, worked with Wormwood Society members Jonathan Deinhart and Brian Huff to provide images of some of the tools used in the preparation of absinthe. Ashley Rose, marketing assistant at Action Systems, Inc., provided images of ASI’s latest technology. Ryann Sandmann, on-premise sales manager for Miller Brewing Company of Denton, began as a student in Gus’ class at University of North Texas, and has returned to lecture on craft brews and provide us with the latest information on this topic. Robert Schafer, Southeastern U.S. sales representative for Classical Wines of Spain, reviewed the wine chapters for us and helped with wine pricing information and examples of wine labels.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Randi Sirkin, director of creative services for STARR RESTAURANTS, along with Brian Baglin, general manager of the Continental Restaurant and Martini Bar provided the image of the bar at the Continental. Dean Underdahl, on-premise wines sales representative for Republic Beverages, helped us update information on wine sales in restaurants and clubs, including current industry information on consumption trends. Maria Cristina Valenzuela, the Dallas “tequila ambassador” for Jose Cuervo Familia and Tequila Don Julio, provided new insights into tequila production in Mexico. Tom Verner, C.W.E., C.S.S., is Glazer’s regional training manager in Texas. Vodka, gin and rum product knowledge are among his contributions to this edition. Robert W. Watts, the regional representative for Merchant du Vin, offered insight into the merits of specialty-imported brews, particularly his extensive knowledge of Belgian beers. (Despite its name, Merchant du Vin is a specialty beer importing company.) Lindsay Ryan, in the Communications Department at Anheuser-Busch, provided an image of the Anheuser-Busch Brewery, circa 1890. Sarah Weidner, marketing manager at Natura Water, provided an image of Natura’s foodservice water purification system. Mary Ann Willis, C.W.E., is Glazer’s State of Texas account manager, who provided invaluable product knowledge about liqueurs and aperitifs. David Wood, a sales representative for the Texas-based wholesale wine distributor Multicarte, Inc., assisted with the many intricacies of wines from Portugal and Spain. Deb Zalesiak, proprietor of D4 Irish Pub & Café in Chicago, provided excellent images of the fantastic bar at D4. Three individuals from the Texas Alcoholic Beverage Commission (TABC) also deserve our thanks for providing us current information about states’ efforts to ensure responsible alcohol consumption. They also shared knowledge of how state agencies monitor/audit on-premise consumption of alcoholic beverages. They are Beth Gray, the TABC agent for Denton County, Texas; and two auditors in the Compliance Division in Dallas, Steve Boyer, and Ellen Henley. Many thanks to the instructors who helped guide the direction of this revision, providing excellent feedback by reviewing chapters of this edition. They are: Denis Boucher, New England Culinary Institute; Louis R. Woods, Jr., Anne Arundel Community College; Ya-Hui Elegance Chang, Lynn University; Arturo Sighinolfi, Florida International University; David J. Wixted, Schenectady County Community College; and Michael Barnes, SUNY Delhi. A final, special acknowledgment: to you, for making good use of the wealth of information in this book. Dozens of true experts, passionate about their facets of the industry, have helped us compile it over the years. We are grateful to all. Costas (“Gus”) Katsigris Chris Thomas

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CHAPTER 1

THE BEVERAGE INDUSTRY, YESTERDAY AND TODAY

D

rinking alcoholic beverages is as old as human history, and making a profit from serving such drinks came right on the heels of drinking them. Throughout history, alcoholic beverages have been a part of everyday life in most cultures, used in tinctures, tonics, and remedies. In light of recent scientific evidence, some physicians recommend moderate alcohol consumption (one to two glasses of wine) on a daily basis. However, alcoholic beverages contain another ingredient that can’t be easily described: A sense of mystique and magic that can take the edge off human troubles, lift you up when you’re down, and add a special dimension to a ceremony or celebration. There is also a dark side to alcoholic beverages, which will be discussed in upcoming chapters. However, the purpose of this chapter is to take a quick yet comprehensive tour of the alcoholic beverages and service venues of yesterday and today, exploring the good and the bad. It’s a necessary and enlightening road, providing you with the knowledge to better understand today’s bar and beverage industry challenges. THIS CHAPTER WILL HELP YOU . . . 䡲 Learn the historical importance of alcohol in religious rites, ceremonies, and medical treatment; in meals; in fellowship; and in humankind’s search for wisdom and truth. 䡲 Learn about how wine, beer, and distilled spirits were created. 䡲 Trace the history of the tavern in Europe and America and recount the role that taverns played in the American Revolution. 䡲 Examine the impact of Prohibition on the bar industry. 䡲 Compare and contrast the types of businesses that make up today’s beverageservice industry.

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2

CHAPTER 1

THE BEVERAGE INDUSTRY, YESTERDAY AND TODAY

I

n the last century in the United States alone, the bar and beverage business has gone from an illegal enterprise carried on behind the locked doors of a speakeasy to one of the nation’s most glamorous and profitable businesses. Together with the foodservice or restaurant business, the two form the country’s fourth-largest industry. In fact, it is impossible to separate them. In the 1930s, the United States was nearing the end of Prohibition, which was an unsuccessful attempt to regulate alcohol consumption by outlawing it entirely. History tells us that such attempts have never worked because people find other ways to get what they want. From earliest times, human beings seem to have wanted alcoholic beverages. Indeed, some historians theorize that one of the reasons our nomadic forebears settled into civilized life was to raise grain and grapes to ensure supplies of what they looked upon as sacred beverages.

THE EARLIEST WINES Perhaps 8,000 to 10,000 years ago, someone discovered that when fruit (or grain, milk, or rice) was fermented, the results tasted good, made one happy—or both. Archaeologists say the Chinese were making wine from a mixed fermented beverage made from rice, beeswax-honey and either wild grapes or hawthorn berries. The Bible mentions wine consumption in both the Old and New Testaments. When Noah settled down after the flood, he planted a vineyard “. . . and he drank of the wine and was drunken.” With all of alcohol’s benefits and hazards, it was a universal feature of early civilizations. People around the world fermented anything that would ferment: honey, grapes, grains, dates, rice, sugarcane, milk, palms, peppers, berries, sesame seeds, pomegranates. Almost all of the world’s wines (the ones made from grapes, that is) can be traced to a single Eurasian grape species, Vitus vinifera. We know that grapes were being cultivated as early as 6,000 B.C. in the Middle East and Asia. The Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Chinese were all tending their vines at about the same time. It is believed that the ancient Greeks got their viticulture knowledge from the Egyptians, and began to make wine about 2,000 B.C., although Italian archaeologists have found evidence that perhaps the island nation of Cyprus was the first in Europe to make wine. While some civilizations drank from cattle horns, the Cypriots also were the first to make a horn-shaped receptacle out of pottery. A sweet dessert wine, called Commandaria, is perhaps the world’s oldest “brand name.” It was named after the territories into which Cyprus was subdivided during the Crusades, and has been made and marketed since then. Historians continue to debate the exact origin of the term wine, but there is wide agreement that the Hittite characters that spell wee-on are probably the first recorded word for wine, around 1,500 B.C. The Oxford English Dictionary credits the old English word win, which derived from the Latin vinum and is further traced to the ancient Greek word oinos. Indeed, the Greek term oinos logos (“wine logic”) is the origin of the modern word for the study of wine: enology (the American spelling) or oenology (the British spelling).

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THE EARLIEST WINES

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The Greeks first discovered the practice of aging wines, storing them in cylinders known as amphorae. Made of clay, they were remarkably airtight. Fifteen hundred years later, the Romans tried a similar method, but their clay was more porous and didn’t work as well. So they began coating their clay vessels with tar on the insides, a process known as pitching. Yes, it prevented air from mixing with wine, but can you imagine what the addition of tar must have done to the quality of the wine? By 1,000 B.C. grapevines were found in Sicily and Northern Africa. Within the next 500 years, grapevines reached the Iberian Peninsula, Southern France, and even Southern Russia. Conquering Saracen (Arab) tribes in the Middle Ages brought both winemaking and distillation skills with them. The words alcohol and still are Arabic in origin. As the Roman Empire spread it, brought grapes to Northern Europe, too. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Catholic Church was the most prominent promoter of viticulture. Monasteries became the vanguards of wine production and knowledge because wine was needed both in everyday life and in sacramental activities. The Portuguese are credited with shipping the first corked bottles of wine to England, but not until the year 1780. In one of the more fascinating discoveries of this century—at least, for wine lovers— a bottle of wine from the 1700s was discovered in 2002, bobbing around in the North Sea off the coast of The Netherlands. Although the cork was soft, no appreciable amount of seawater had seeped into the flask-like glass bottle. A tasting panel of seven experts gathered to sip and study the contents. They decided it was an early variant of dry port that had been colored with a small amount of elderberry juice. Its alcohol content was estimated at 10.6 percent, it showed no traces of oxidation, and its acidity compared favorably to present-day wines. In many cultures, people associated intoxicating beverages with wisdom. Early Persians discussed all matters of importance twice: once when they were sober and once when they were drunk. Saxons in ancient England opened their council meetings by passing around a large, stone mug of beer. Greeks held their famous symposiums (philosophical discussions) during hours of after-dinner drinking. In fact, the word symposium means “drinking together.” As the Roman historian Pliny summed it up, “In vino veritas” (“In wine there is truth”). Alcoholic beverages, often in combination with herbs, have been used for centuries as medicines and tonics. Indeed, herbs and alcohol were among the few ways of treating or preventing disease until about a century ago. But probably the most important historic use of alcoholic beverages was also the simplest: as food and drink. Bread and ale, or bread and wine, were the staples of any meal for an ordinary person, with the drink considered food. For centuries these hearty beverages provided up to half the calories needed for a day’s heavy labor. In addition, they were considered the only liquids fit to drink, with good reason. Household water was commonly polluted. Milk could cause milk sickness (tuberculosis). But beer, ale, and wine were diseasefree, tasty, and thirst-quenching, crucial qualities in societies that preserved food with salt and washed it down with a diet of starches. Both wines and grapevines were imported from France to the New World in the 1700s. As U.S. minister to France, Thomas Jefferson was one of the primary supporters of the fledgling winemaking industry and tried (passionately but unsuccessfully)

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to grow his own grapes at Monticello. By the early 1900s, about 1700 wineries dotted the United States, and they were mostly small, family-owned businesses. Wine was still considered an effete beverage until the 1800s, when Italian immigrants came to the United States with their home winemaking skills and a hospitable culture that accepted wine as a simple, everyday part of mealtimes and celebrations. Many of today’s best-known California winemakers, with names like Gallo and Mondavi, are descendants of these immigrant families. Today, the world’s largest wine museum is located in Briones, a town in the Rioja region of Spain, about 180 miles northeast of Madrid. From a thirteenth-century wine vessel, to more than 3,000 corkscrews, you can learn about the history of winemaking in English or Spanish. The facility is a five-story building owned by the Vivanco family, on their Dinastia Vivanco winery property.

WINE AND RELIGION

FIGURE 1.1 Bacchus, the Roman god of wine. Photo courtesy the Picture Collection, The Branch Libraries, The New York Public Library.

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Early beers, ales, and wines were considered gifts from the gods—that is, miracle products with magical powers. People used them universally in religious rites, and they still do. The Israelites of the Old Testament offered libations to Jehovah. The Romans honored Bacchus, god of wine (see Figure 1.1). Christians used wine in the sacrament of Communion. Primitive peoples used fermented beverages in their sacred rites. Victories, weddings, and other sacred and joyous occasions were celebrated with wine or ale. Camaraderie and fellowship were acknowledged with a “loving cup,” passed around the table and shared by all until it was emptied. Of all alcoholic beverages, wine maintains the greatest religious connection. In the book Religion and Wine: A Cultural History of Wine-Drinking in the United States (University of Tennessee Press, 1996), author Robert Fuller traces the development of winemaking from the French Huguenots, Protestants who settled along the East Coast of North America in the 1500s, to the Pilgrims in Plymouth Bay in the 1600s to the Franciscan friars and Jesuit priests who built the early missions in California during the 1700s and 1800s. Whether these early Americans were Baptists, Methodists, or Mormons, they permitted and enjoyed limited wine consumption as part of their worship. According to Fuller, the United States did not have “grape-juice Protestants” (a nickname for those who decried the alcohol content of wine and replaced it in ceremonies with grape juice) until the late eighteenth century. Interestingly, Thomas Welch, a dentist and Methodist minister, developed this alternative; the Welch name is now well known as a brand of juice products. At that time, attitudes about alcohol changed as some religious groups (Fuller calls them “ascetic Christians”) began to espouse the theory that the road to heaven required total self-discipline, including the denial of all earthly pleasures. Some groups feared that consuming alcohol would weaken sensibility, ethics, and moral values and diminish self-control in an age where many churches sought greater control over their members. Conversely, other religious groups felt just as strongly that rituals using wine could mediate God’s presence and foster greater enjoyment of what life had to offer. These

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included Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Episcopalians, and Lutherans. And so the rift widened. Since the 1800s, the relationship between alcohol and religion has been the subject of debate and ambivalence. Almost two centuries later, in 1990, California winemaker Robert Mondavi designed a new label for his wines that included a paragraph extolling the beverage’s longtime role in culture and religion. In part it read, “Wine has been with us since the beginning of civilization. It is a temperate, civilized, sacred, romantic mealtime beverage recommended in the Bible . . .” Mondavi was prohibited from using this wording by the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF BEER The Sumerians (a generic name for the ancient inhabitants of Mesopotamia) are said to have discovered the beer fermentation process quite by chance. They must have liked it: They had a goddess of brewing, Ninkasi, and a hymn to her, which was the beer-making recipe put to music. Their successors, the Babylonians, knew how to brew 20 different types of beer. Scribes recorded the recipes as early as 6,000 B.C. The ancient Egyptians made note of Ramses III, the pharaoh whose annual sacrifice of about 30,000 gallons of beer appeased “thirsty gods.” The Egyptians passed on their brewing knowledge to the Greeks and Romans. In each of these civilizations. wine was considered the trendy beverage, and beer was brewed on the outer fringes of the empires, where wine ingredients were apparently more difficult to get. Thus, we find beer brewed on German soil for the first time around the year 800 B.C. The word beer comes from the ancient Latin word biber, a slang term for the beverage made by fermenting grain, and adding hops for flavoring. In ancient times biber was considered lower class compared to ale, which was made in similar fashion but without the addition of hops. Hops became popular in Europe in the Middle Ages when it was discovered they served as a natural preservative; other herbs had been tried, sometimes with disastrous (i.e., poisonous) results. Not until the year 1516, however, did the Duke of Bavaria proclaim the German Beer Purity Law, establishing for the first time that only barley, hops, and pure water could be used to make beer in that region. (The use of yeast was not yet known.) It is the oldest valid food and/or beverage law in the world. Today, the European Union will permit importation of beers that are not brewed in accordance with the Beer Purity Law—but only if this fact is clearly stated on the label. Until the Middle Ages, both beer brewing and bread baking were viewed largely as women’s work. In ancient Babylon only priestesses made beer, connecting it with religion for the first time. This connection became even stronger in Europe around A.D. 1,000 when monasteries turned their attention to brewing, for profit and their own mealtime use. Even during periods of fasting, monks were permitted to have beer. During this time period, the brewing process also was fine-tuned for different purposes. There were everyday, lower-alcohol beers, and others with higher alcohol content for special occasions. The modern term bridal joins the words bride and ale; a bride’s ale was brewed by a young woman’s family in preparation for wedding festivities.

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Just about every civilization has made some type of beer, from whatever grain or root or plant was available in abundance. African tribes made their beer from millet; in Japan, the chief ingredient was rice; in Europe and North and South America, it was barley. The brew was hearty and filling, and provided calories and nutrients to fuel manual labor. The significance of beer in the average person’s diet was demonstrated at the landing of the Mayflower at Plymouth, in what is now Massachusetts. The Pilgrims were headed for Virginia, but the ship was running out of beer. So they were “ ‘hasted ashore and made to drink water that the seamen might have more beer,” wrote Governor Bradford later. Before 1850, the beverage preference in the United States was ale, which had been popular in England. It was made like beer, but fermented more quickly, at higher temperatures than beer. Beer production and sales played colorful parts in U.S. history. The Dutch West Indies Company opened the first American brewery in 1632, in Lower Manhattan. There is speculation that the crude streets of New Amsterdam (later New York City) were paved to help the horse-drawn beer wagons make better progress, because they were so often stuck in the mud. Brewing became an aristocratic and popular business. William Penn, the Quaker leader who founded the state of Pennsylvania, Revolutionary War leaders Samuel Adams and Ethan Allen, and even George Washington, all were brewery owners. (Adams is credited with suggesting to Washington that he supply the Revolutionary Army with two quarts of beer per soldier per day.) By the mid-nineteenth century, brewing dynasties that are still household names among today’s beer aficionados had begun in the United States. In Detroit, Michigan, Bernard Stroh, from a beer-making family in Rhineland, Germany, opened his brewing company in 1850. Five years later Frederick Miller purchased an existing facility, Best’s Brewery in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In St. Louis, Missouri, Eberhard Anheuser purchased a struggling brewery in 1860. His daughter married Adolphus Busch, a German immigrant whose family supplied grains and hops, and the mighty Anheuser-Busch Company was born. (See Figure 1.2.) A dozen years later, Adolph Coors, another German immigrant from the Rhineland, started to brew beer in Colorado. The Germans brought with them a different brewing style that produced a lighter beer known as lager, which is paler and clearer in appearance than ale and has a drier flavor. Its name comes from a German word for storage or storehouse; it was routinely stored for several months in cold temperatures before serving. Making lagerstyle beer required ice, so it was typically brewed in winter and stored until summer, when the demand was highest. Milwaukee emerged as the nation’s brewing center for the most practical reason: Ice was easily available from Lake Michigan, and there were plenty of local caves to store the beer. When refrigerators and icemakers were invented, lager could be brewed anytime, anyplace. Heat was just as important as cold to the fast-growing beer-making industry. The French chemist Louis Pasteur discovered in the 1800s that, like milk or cider, beer could be heated to sufficient temperature to kill harmful bacteria without diminishing the quality of the brew. This process of pasteurization enabled beer to be bottled for shipment. Pasteur also experimented with live brewer’s yeast to prompt fermentation. Yeast had been around for many centuries and used for cooking and medicinal

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FIGURE 1.2 Adolphus Busch’s original six-story Brew House, built in 1891–92, is still part of AB InBev’s St. Louis, Missouri, operation. Courtesy of Anheuser-Busch.

purposes. With the advent of reliable and sanitary methods of propagating yeast, the brewer’s ability to make consistent beers, batch after batch, was greatly improved. By the 1960s stainless-steel barrels were replacing the old wooden ones in modern breweries. These metal barrels are considered to be more hygienic, and easier to fill and tap.

DISTILLED SPIRITS IN BRIEF The process of distillation—first heating, then cooling and condensing liquids to extract and concentrate their alcohol content—was known in crude form even in ancient times. The Chinese and the peoples of the East Indies distilled liquids and used the resulting potions for medicinal purposes as early as 800 B.C. About the time the Pilgrims ran out of beer at Plymouth Rock, these forms of concentrated alcohol were coming into favor in Europe. Distilled spirits made from fermented liquids were much more potent than the original liquids. The first ones were called aqua vitae (water of life) and used as medicines, but they were quickly assimilated into society as beverages. Highland

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Scots and Irish distillers made whiskey. The French distilled wine to make brandy. A Dutch doctor’s experiments produced gin, which is alcohol flavored with the juniper berry. In Russia and Poland the distilled spirit was vodka. In the West Indies rum was made from sugarcane, while in Mexico, Spaniards distilled the Indians’ native drink to make mescal, the great-grandfather of today’s tequila. With increasing supplies of spirits and their high alcohol content, excessive drinking became a national problem in several European countries. In England cheap gin became the drink of the poor. They could and did get “drunk for a penny, dead drunk for two pence,” as one gin mill advertised. This particular mill, in the same advertisement, mentioned that it also provided “free straw” (a bed of hay) for sleeping it off. Across the Atlantic, Americans welcomed the new spirits. Rum soon became the most popular drink and New England became a leading manufacturer. George Washington put rum to political use when he ran for the Virginia legislature, giving each voter a barrel of rum, beer, wine, or hard cider. By the end of the century, whiskey was challenging rum in popularity. Seeing a potential new income source, the new U.S. Congress enacted the first tax on whiskey production in 1791. Many of the distillers, still trying to recover financially from the Revolutionary War, did not have much money and refused to pay the taxes. By 1794, President Washington had a real problem on his hands. He mustered 12,000 troops and marched into Pennsylvania to avert the so-called Whiskey Rebellion. It ended without a shot being fired, but many angry distillers packed up and moved farther west to enjoy greater freedom and avoid future confrontations. When Washington’s presidency ended in 1797, he was once again a forerunner in the distilling business, making his own rye from his own grain in his own stills at Mount Vernon, Virginia. In one year, his distillery produced 11,000 gallons of whiskey and showed a profit of $7,500, which is equal to about $105,000 today. Here’s his recipe, called a mash bill: 1. Start with 65 percent rye, 30 percent corn, and 5 percent malted barley, each ground (separately) into a coarse meal. 2. Mix the rye and corn. (This was done in a wooden vessel called a hogshead.) Add hot and cold water, and stick your hand into the mash to make sure it is not too hot. If it does not burn, the temperature is just right. Add the barley and stir. 3. Cool the mixture a bit more and add yeast. Let the mixture ferment for a few days. 4. Pour the mixture into a copper still and let it boil. The alcohol will vaporize and condense, flowing out of a tube (also known as a worm). 5. Collect the liquid and run it through the copper still one more time. Washington probably barreled his whiskey and sold it immediately; modern-day distillers would have aged it for a few years. A few of today’s top U.S. whiskey makers followed the recipe in 2003 to create a special batch for an auction to benefit the Mount Vernon estate, now an historic landmark. The Distilled Spirits Council, a trade group, spent more than $1 million to excavate the site where the original distillery stood and re-created it as an educational exhibit. It includes five copper stills, mash tubs, and a boiler where distillers demonstrate eighteenth-century techniques in a two-story building. George Washington’s Distillery is known as the “Gateway to the American Whiskey Trail.”

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The distillers who relocated to Tennessee and Kentucky after the Whiskey Rebellion inadvertently discovered a gold mine of sorts there: cold, clear water supplies that are still famous for their role in whiskey production. The spirit soon became known as Bourbon, since some of the first distillers set up shop in Bourbon County, Kentucky. As the American West was settled, whiskey was easier to store and transport than beer or wine; in great demand, it became a very popular commodity in the trade-and-barter commerce of frontier life. Distillation gained momentum as the process was refined. Rectification (described more fully in Chapter 5), or distilling a liquid more than once, yielded a much cleaner and almost 100 percent pure spirits than previous efforts. Before rectification was perfected, spirits contained flavor impurities. Herbs, honey, and/ or flowers were added to mask them. After rectification these items were also routinely added, but now to enhance the flavor. Some of today’s grand liqueurs are the results of these early flavor concoctions. Cognac, for instance, was a pale, acidic French wine for which there was little public demand—until it was concentrated in the 1600s as an eau de vie, French for aqua vitae. It became enormously popular and still is today.

ALCOHOL AND HEALTH IN HISTORY Alcoholic beverages, particularly wines, were the prime medicinal agents of our ancestors from the ancient world into the early nineteenth century. Wine was the most common ingredient in the medicines of ancient Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia, either taken by mouth or topically applied. The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder recommended a mixture of wine and rue (a strongly scented, bitter-tasting shrub) for just about any type of insect sting or animal bite. Jewish Talmudic tradition maintained that heating and drinking a mixture of wine and ground saffron could cure impotence. The name for brandy came from the Dutch term meaning “burnt wine,” and it was used as a medicinal cure for the Black Death during the fourteenth century. The oddest prescription we found while researching this topic came from ancient Egypt: A combination of wine and ground up donkey testicles was fermented and used to treat epilepsy. In addition to alcohol’s anesthetic properties, early physicians and folk healers recognized its ability to act as a disinfectant. Remember old Western movies in which whiskey is guzzled by the cowboy before the country doctor removes the bullet from his leg—and then also poured on the open wound to sterilize it? The doctors of olden times couldn’t see and didn’t know about things like germs, single-cell yeasts and antioxidants, but they did see cause-and-effect relationships. Centuries ago, people who drank alcohol (not to excess, of course) were healthier and hardier than those who did not because of its nutritional value. They lived longer and reproduced more. Armies were “inoculated” against disease on their foreign campaigns by mixing wine with the local water supply to kill bacteria. Early beer makers realized that, unless their brew fermented for a certain time and reached an alcohol level of at least 5 percent, it would contain detrimental microorganisms that produced “off ” flavors and odors and might even be dangerous to drink.

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The curative compounds found in alcoholic beverages were not isolated and purified for use on their own until the 1800s. Today, remnants of folk medicine still abound, from rubbing whiskey on a teething baby’s gums to ease pain, to sipping a glass of wine to aid digestion. You will learn more about alcohol, health, and nutrition in Chapter 2.

THE TAVERN: PLEASURES AND POLITICS Pouring for profit developed hand in hand with civilization. The clay tablets of Old Babylon’s King Hammurabi refer to alehouses and high-priced, watered-down beer. A papyrus document from ancient Egypt warns, “Do not get drunk in the taverns . . . for fear that people repeat words which may have gone out of your mouth without you being aware of having uttered them.” Greek and Roman cities had taverns that served food as well as drink; excavations in Pompeii (a Roman city of 20,000) have uncovered the remains of 118 bars. In both Greece and Rome, some taverns offered lodging for the night, or gambling and other amusements. After the fall of the Roman Empire, life in most of Europe became much more primitive. When next the taverns reappeared, they were alehouses along the trade routes, which provided a stable for the horses, a place to sleep, and sometimes a meal. In England the public house, or pub, developed during Saxon times as a place where people gathered for fellowship and pleasure. An evergreen bush on a pole outside meant ale was served. A sign with a picture of, for example, a Black Horse, White Swan, or Red Lion identified each pub. These early “logos” were used because most people could not read. As time went on, the tavern became a permanent institution throughout Europe in its many incarnations: inns, pubs, cabarets, dance halls, and “meetinghouses.” Neighbors gathered at these establishments to exchange the latest news and gossip over a mug or a tankard. In cities, men of similar interests met for a round of drinks and good talk. In London’s Mermaid Tavern, William Shakespeare, dramatist and poet Ben Jonson, and other famous literary figures met regularly. Lawyers had their favorite taverns; students had theirs. Members of Parliament formed political clubs, each meeting in its favorite tavern for lively discussion of strategy. Whatever its form, the tavern was a place to enjoy life, to socialize, to exchange ideas, and to be stimulated. The beverages intensified the pleasure, loosened the tongue, sparked the wit, or, as Socrates said, “moistened the soul.” When Europeans emigrated to America, they brought the tavern with them. It was considered essential to a town’s welfare to have a place that provided drink, lodging and food. In Massachusetts in the 1650s, any town without a tavern was fined! Often the tavern was built near the church so that parishioners could warm up quickly after Sunday services held in unheated meetinghouses; a new town sometimes built its tavern before its church. As towns grew into cities and roads were built connecting them, taverns followed the roads. In parts of Pennsylvania today, it is possible to find towns named for such early taverns as Blue Bell, Red Lion, and King of Prussia. In some towns the old tavern is still standing. It was also in the taverns that the spirit of revolution was born, fed, and translated into action. These were the rendezvous spots for rebels, where groups like the

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Sons of Liberty were formed and held their meetings. The Boston Tea Party was planned in Hancock Tavern, while in the Green Dragon, Paul Revere and 30 companions formed a committee to watch the troop movement of British soldiers. In Williamsburg, the Raleigh Tavern was the meeting place of the Virginia patriots, including Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson. In New York’s Queen’s Head Tavern, a New York Tea Party was planned, and many patriot meetings were held there during the Revolutionary War. After the war Samuel Fraunces, its owner, renamed the tavern Fraunces Tavern (to eliminate any reference to the Queen). It was here that General George Washington said goodbye to his fellow officers in 1783. When Washington became president, Fraunces became his chief steward. Today, Fraunces Tavern is a New York City landmark. When Americans pushed westward, taverns sprang up along the routes west. As towns appeared, the tavern was often the first building; homes and merchants’ shops grew up around it. By the mid-1800s, the “modern” American tavern was becoming a large-scale inn for the travelers and businesspeople of a nation on the move. At the same time, drinking places without lodging also were appearing. These kept the name tavern, while more elaborate inns adopted the term hotel. But the hotel kept its barroom—it was often a showplace, with a handsome mahogany bar and a welldressed bartender, who might even sport gold and diamonds as part of his uniform. Some hotel bars became famous, including the Menger in San Antonio where Teddy Roosevelt recruited Rough Riders, and Planter’s Hotel in St. Louis, where a bartender created the venerable tropical drink known as Planter’s Punch in 1841. By the turn of the century, the successors to the early taverns had taken many forms. There were glittering hotels to serve the wealthy in cities and resorts. There were fashionable cabarets, such as Maxim’s in Paris, where rich and famous men consorted with rich and famous courtesans, and music halls, such as the Folies Bergéres. There were private clubs, cafes ranging from elegant to seedy, big-city saloons that provided free lunches with their drinks, and corner saloons of working-class districts, where many a man toasted his victories and/or drowned his sorrows in drink (see Figure 1.3). The restaurant industry also made its appearance in the nineteenth century, serving wines and other beverages to enhance the diner’s pleasure.

PROHIBITION AND ITS EFFECTS Meanwhile, a growing number of people in the United States sought to curb the use of alcoholic beverages. At first this movement went by the name Temperance and its target was “ardent spirits” (distilled spirits), but proponents soon included beer and wine and expanded their goal from temperance, or moderation, to total prohibition. In a century-long barrage of propaganda and moral fervor, the movement succeeded in convincing many Americans that drink of any kind led inevitably to sin and damnation. If you outlaw “demon rum,” they believed, sin would disappear and utopia would naturally emerge. Along with this belief went the notion that those engaged in making or selling alcoholic beverages were on the devil’s side of this battle between good and evil or, as it was also dubbed, dry and wet.

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FIGURE 1.3 The typical bar setup today doesn’t look much different than it did in the 1880s, when this photo was taken in Pocatello, Idaho. Courtesy of the Idaho State Historical Society, Boise, Idaho.

The fervor was fed by the proliferation of saloons opened by competing breweries to push their products, many of them financed by money from abroad. By the late 1800s there was a swinging-door saloon (also called a joint) on almost every corner in small towns and big cities. These establishments often became unsavory places, largely because there were far too many of them to survive on sales of beer and whiskey alone. Many purveyors added prostitution, gambling, and other illegal goings-on. In 1851, Maine became the first state to pass its own prohibition law. By 1880 Kansas was the first state to pass a constitutional amendment that outlawed both the manufacture and sale of alcohol, although the new law was selectively enforced or often simply ignored. In Kansas, Carry A. Nation was a woman who decided “enough was enough.” A combination of a frustrating marriage to an alcoholic and disgust at the lack of enforcement of the law led Nation to take her own kind of action. Calling herself a “Home Defender,” she waged a two-year, vigilante-style campaign, rallying women to show up at bars swinging bats and hatchets—and singing hymns—as they literally destroyed the places! Her crusade made her the darling of national Prohibition advocates. By 1901, Nation addressed the Kansas Legislature on behalf of families. She also went on the lecture circuit, billing herself as “The Famous and Original Bar Room Smasher,” although she was neither the first nor the last activist to employ violence for the cause (see Figure 1.4).

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FIGURE 1.4 Anti-alcohol activist Carry Nation took her “show on the road” in the early 1900s, destroying Kansas barrooms with hatchets and baseball bats as “The Barroom Smasher.” Photo courtesy of the Kansas State Historical Society, Topeka, Kansas.

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While the Prohibition movement gave some women (who could not yet vote) their first taste of political activism, it was also an expression of religious and ethnic antagonisms. It pitted fundamentalist middle-Americans against the new German and Irish Catholic immigrants. The brewers were German and the bartenders were Irish, and both brought with them cultures that included alcohol intake as a fact of everyday life. The movement also pitted small-town and rural America against what was perceived as big-city licentiousness. During World War I, the “dry side” won its battle. The Eighteenth Amendment, passed during the wartime fever of patriotism and self-denial, prohibited the “manufacture, sale, transportation, and importation of intoxicating liquors” in the United States and its territories. Ratified by all but two states, Connecticut and Rhode Island, it went into effect in 1920. Despite the zeal of its proponents, Prohibition had a short and unhappy life of not quite 14 years. As Kansans had discovered decades earlier, there was simply no way to enforce it. While legal establishments were closing their doors, illegal “speakeasies” began opening theirs to those who could whisper the right password. Legal breweries and distilleries closed down, but illegal stills made liquor by the light of the moon in secret hideouts, hence the nickname moonshine. Illegal spirits also were smuggled into the country from Canada and Mexico and from “Rum Rows” offshore; these were bootleg supply ships that sold to small, fast boats whose entrepreneurial captains made the run to shore. Some folks just decided to make their own beer, wine, and gin at home. Prohibition affected the wine industry as dramatically as it did other alcoholic beverage producers. Many winery owners simply plowed their fields under and planted different crops. A few received special licenses to make sacramental wines, or permits to make wines strictly for home use, only up to 200 gallons per year. Ironically, rather than decreasing drinking, Prohibition seemed almost to invite it. Flouting the law became, to some, the fashionable (or, at least, enterprising) thing to do. After nine years of Prohibition, New York City had 32,000 speakeasies, about twice as many as the number of pre-Prohibition saloons! To add to the problems of enforcement, organized crime took over the bootlegging business in many cities. Gangsters quickly became rich, powerful, and seemingly immune to the law. The combination of racketeering, gang warfare, and bootlegging became a major national problem. Everyone, even those who first vehemently supported it, agreed that things had gotten out of hand under Prohibition. In 1933 Congress passed the Twenty-first Amendment, repealing the Eighteenth. Before Prohibition shut it down, beverage manufacturing had been the fifth largest industry in the United States. After passage of the Twenty-first Amendment, it made a quick comeback, despite stiff taxes and heavy regulation by federal and state governments. Today, alcoholic beverages are an accepted part of the American scene, and have been for some time; the sale of liquor is legal in every state and the District of Columbia. The serving of liquor in bars and restaurants is a normal part of the culture, and restaurant patrons expect to be able to buy mixed drinks, beer, and wine

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A FORMER SPEAKEASY CELEBRATES ITS COLORFUL PAST December 2008 marked the 75th “anniversary” of the end of Prohibition, and New York City’s famous ‘21’ Club was among the celebration sites. The ‘21’ Club had been a speakeasy, complete with passwords, secret knocks, and trick doors for its clientele. Tall, spiked gates guarded the front entrance, and there was a peephole in the door. In a cramped cellar below the main kitchen, a number of 18-inch meat skewers hang on a hook. Insert one of the skewers into the “correct” hole in the wall, even today, and it unlocks a heavy door that protects a million dollar inventory of fine wine, the former site of the illegal bar. Its backbar shelves were rigged to dump their liquor contents into the city sewer system at a moment’s notice! Similar “secret taverns” existed in just about every block of the downtown area. ‘21’ Club legend has it that once, when federal agents showed up for a raid, New York City’s good-timing mayor, James J. Walker, was among the guests. He called the police—and had the agents’ cars towed away. (Information adapted from the New York Times.)

FIGURE 1.5 The trick door of New York’s ‘21’ Club, opened by pushing a metal bar into a tiny hole. Today the door still works and the area behind it is used as a wine cellar. Courtesy of the ‘21’ Club.

with their food. In fact restaurants that don’t serve liquor often have a hard time competing. But the Wet versus Dry controversy never really ended. Control of the issue was given to states, counties, towns, and precincts, resulting in a mishmash of local liquor laws that has made America into a Wet-Dry checkerboard. Even today this pattern mirrors our society’s longstanding mixed feelings about alcohol use. Historically, alcohol has always had its dark side as well as its benefits, from the drunkenness in the taverns of ancient Egypt, to the cheap gin consumed by the poor in eighteenth-century England, to the corner saloons of small-town America 100 years ago. Today, the problems are just as critical, with drunk-driving accidents taking thousands of lives each year and some 10 percent of drinkers becoming alcoholaddicted. What is it about alcohol that can “moisten the soul,” yet cause so much harm? We will discuss this issue at length in Chapter 2.

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TODAY’S BEVERAGE-SERVICE INDUSTRY While alcohol consumption has remained steady and relatively unaffected by the nation’s 2008 economic downturn, since the 1990s, alcohol consumption in the United States has gradually declined. Expert observers relate the drop to lifestyle changes for many busy Americans, many of whom now focus on fitness and preventive health care. They’ve stopped smoking; they exercise; they watch their weight; they count calories, carbohydrates, and cholesterol; and they keep their heads clear during working hours. The “three-Martini lunch” is now a relic, replaced by bottled and enhanced waters (organic to vitamin-infused), energy drinks, flavored iced teas, and, on rare occasions, perhaps a single glass of wine. These moderate drinkers limit their consumption to one or two drinks a day. At the same time, they are very much interested in the quality of whatever drink they choose. When they do imbibe they tend to choose premium or super-premium liquors, wines, and beers. “Drinking less but drinking better” has become the norm.

What People Are Drinking Beverage Digest magazine tracks U.S. beverage-consumption figures and graciously shared them with us for this chapter. Perhaps the statistic that says the most about American lifestyle changes at the turn of the most recent century is the per capita consumption figure for bottled water: In 2003, it had risen to 16.6 gallons per person, per year, up from 8.7 gallons just ten years earlier. By 2007, the average person in the U.S. drank more than 29 gallons of bottled water, making it the most popular beverage next to carbonated soft drinks. In contrast Americans drank the highest amount of distilled spirits—two gallons per person per year—back in the 1970s. Since 1993, however, consumption figures have hovered between 1.2 and 1.3 gallons per person per year. When the fitness and/or organic enthusiast does drink, he or she wants a “light” drink, one that is perceived to contain less alcohol and fewer calories and carbohydrates. (Some of these drinks do and some don’t, as we will see). But consumer interest has seen a shift in the growing area of fancy, customized cocktails and highend spirit products, according to the Distilled Spirits Council of the U.S. and overall, sales of spirits have continued to grow since 2003, with sales in 2007 up 5.6 percent. White goods (vodka, gin, tequila, and rum) generally do better than brown goods (Bourbon, Scotch, and other whiskies) even though they all have similar alcohol contents. Vodka has seen a market explosion, as high-end products made of everything from buffalo grass to Idaho potatoes and infused with exotic ingredients such as ginger spill out over the crowd of top-shelf choices. According to the Distilled Spirits Council, vodka dominates the spirits industry, accounting for 28 percent of all volume. Just over 51 million 9-liter cases were sold in the U.S. in 2007, generating more than $4 billion in revenue for distillers. As a reflection of American’s desire to “drink better,” super-premium brands have been driving growth. Wine enjoyed its largest upsurge in popularity in the 1980s, reaching a high of 2.4 gallons per person per year. It has remained popular through the economic downturn

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and boasts a loyal following, with steady but slight growth in consumption. In 2007, per capita wine consumption hit a new record of 2.97 gallons according to the Wine Market Council. Despite jam-packed supermarket wine-section shelves, Internet websites and all kinds of exotic choices, the three bestsellers continue to be Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, and White Zinfandel, although Pinot Noir, Pinot Grigio and Malbec continue to climb in popularity. There is also a home-making wine element: You can order the equipment online or, in many larger cities, there are wine shops where you can blend your own “vintage,” bottling and labeling your own brand to share with friends. Beer sales look very impressive when compared to wine and spirits. Americans consume a little more than 21 gallons of beer per person per year. However, this is a slump compared to the 24-gallon-per-person figures of the 1980s, and it represents less than half the amount of soft drinks we consume annually. To slow sales erosion and attract health-conscious consumers, beer companies busily introduced some major product extensions in the 1990s: light beers (lower in alcohol and calories than their “regular” counterparts), dry beers (crisply flavored, and touting “no aftertaste”), and nonalcoholic beers. Light beers now account for 47 percent of all beer sales in the United States. Imported beers and beers from small, regional breweries, or microbreweries, have gained substantial followings, and there’s a small home-brewing hobbyist market. You can easily find and order beermaking equipment and instructions on the Internet; in larger cities, you’ll find at least one beer-making store where home brewers can buy equipment and supplies and get advice. For a fee, some allow you to brew on-site, let the beer age in their storage tanks, and then come back and bottle your own creation yourself. In recognition of customers who drink less, almost all restaurants offer wines by the glass, not just by the bottle. (In Chapter 7, you’ll learn more about creating a workable wine list.) They also do more to publicize their nonalcoholic offerings: mineral waters, soft drinks, flavored teas, juice drinks, and even no-alcohol beers and mocktails. The latter, alcohol-free versions of the Bloody Mary, Piña Colada, and other drinks, are mixed and served with the same care and flair as the bar specialties. This does not mean that Martinis or gin and tonics are obsolete, or that fewer people are patronizing bars or ordering drinks with their meals. There has been renewed interest in the traditional cocktails (Martini, Bloody Mary, Screwdriver) and tall drinks (Scotch and soda or bourbon and soda, gin and tonic or vodka and tonic). There is also strong interest in call brands, the slang term for premium brands that are requested, or “called for,” by name. Super-premium imports, such as single-malt Scotches, Irish whiskeys, Cognac and Armagnac brandies, also have loyal followings. They are popular with customers who have developed a taste for, and interest in, “buying the best” and are willing to pay more for it. They are also interested in experimenting with new brands and learning more about beverages. In contrast, most brown-goods customers are in the upper age groups and are comfortable with their reliable favorites, such as Scotch and soda or Bourbon and water. By the time you read this, however, it all might have changed! New drinks will be invented, and new twists will be added to old favorites. Managing a bar means keeping your finger on the pulse of the market and making the changes necessary to stay ahead.

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Next, we’ll describe a few different types of beverage service, as well as the challenges associated with each. Though it is impossible to divide bars into just a few categories—there are almost as many variations as there are bars—certain kinds have distinct characteristics and styles of service, and it will be helpful to see how they differ and what they have in common.

The Beverage-Only Bar The simplest kind of beverage enterprise is the bar that serves beverages alone, with no foodservice except snacks: peanuts, pretzels, cheese and crackers. This type of bar serves beer, wine, or mixed drinks, or any combination of the three, plus nonalcoholic beverages. It might be a neighborhood gathering place, a convenient stop for commuters on their homeward treks, or a bar at an airport or bus terminal or bowling alley. Business at such bars typically has a predictable flow: a daily pattern of peaks and valleys, a weekly pattern of slow days and heavy days, with the heavy days related to paydays and days off. There might also be seasonal patterns. In airports and bus terminals, business is geared to daily, weekly, and seasonal travel patterns, and according to the time of day; light beverages are served during morning and afternoon, and heartier drinks are served as the working day ends. Because only one type of product is sold and business is generally predictable, the operation of a beverage-only bar is relatively simple, from production to staffing and purchasing to keeping track of the beverages, money, and profits. This type of bar also usually has a specific reason for success, perhaps its location, its reputation as a friendly place (or for pouring well-made drinks), or simply its lack of competition; or perhaps it has just “always been the place where everybody goes.” Often, such bars thrive by being the same as they always were. Customers become sentimental about them and would not tolerate change. That said, as the mood of the country changes, many neighborhood bars are adding food to their offerings. Hotel chains, such as Marriott, Radisson, and Hyatt, have phased out their cocktail-only lounges in favor of food and beverage combinations. The decision is practical: Some states do not allow beverage sales without food sales; other bar owners have decided that it is simply more responsible to offer people food if they will be drinking. In busy airports, corporate concession companies typically operate the bars. Since 1999, the Italian catering and retail giant Autogrill has gobbled up at least two major U.S. airport-bar purveyors, HMS Host (formerly Host Marriott Services Group) and Anton Airfood. Autogrill runs airport bars and restaurants in 37 countries; its website notes that its North American locations are “the testing ground for avant-garde solutions and services.” The trend has been to upgrade these facilities to pour more premium beverages, serve better food, and offer entertainment for travelers awaiting their flights. At some major airports, you’ll find wine bars with menus of upscale, appetizer-sized foods to accompany the beverages. In short, beverage-only bars are definitely in the minority today. Although some are highly profitable, most bars find that serving liquor alone is not enough to

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attract and keep customers. So the majority offer something else: entertainment or food, or both.

Bar/Entertainment Combinations Bars offering entertainment range from the neighborhood bar with pool, pinball, dartboards, or giant televisions to nightclubs with big-name entertainers to comedy clubs to ballrooms with big bands. In-between are cocktail lounges and nightclubs with liveentertainment piano bars, country-and-western dancing, jazz or folk duos, rousing rock-and-roll groups, and even live performance-poetry and art exhibitions. This concept must include the decision to make room for a stage area, sound system, and dance floor. Having entertainment also means hiring someone knowledgeable to book the bands or entertainers whom people will want to see (negotiating contracts at a fair but affordable price) and always thinking ahead to the next fad or hottest music trend to attract a fickle public. A concept that includes regular entertainment of any kind also includes the fixed costs and additional financial risk of hiring and paying the entertainers. In most cases the entertainment may draw the crowd, but it is the drinks that provide the profits. If there is a cover charge, which is an admission fee per person paid at the door, at least part of it is likely to go to the entertainers. The fortunes of this type of bar will rise and fall with the popularity of its entertainers, unless the place has something else going for it. Probably the most stable type of bar/entertainment combo is the smaller place with an attractive ambience, good drinks, and local entertainment to draw a loyal, local crowd. The success potential of this kind of establishment is much the same as the bar-only enterprise. Larger operations featuring out-of-town entertainers have a higher but riskier profit potential. It is likely to be either feast or famine. The bar gears up for each crowd with temporary extra help, a large investment in liquor inventory, and possibly extra security personnel. Weather, holidays, location, and weeknight versus weekend crowds all heavily impact this type of business. Casinos are another enduring combination of entertainment and beverage service. Today’s casinos might be run by a huge corporation or a Native American tribal council, and might include everything from big-name stage productions and professional boxing matches, to restaurants and nongambling arcades that attract families instead of adults only. Sports bars offer a different type of entertainment. In the mid-twentieth century, the term sports bar was a nickname for popular watering holes frequented by sports figures and sports writers, who bought each other drinks and traded stories and colorful quotes. Today, however, you are more likely to have your conversation yelling at a big-screen television than at a sports columnist. Modern-day sports bars are designed for group viewing of popular sporting events. Equipped with large television screens (or plenty of strategically placed smaller ones), the sports bar often sets a fixed price or cover charge to guarantee a good profit because customer turnover is so small (see Figure 1.6). Large sports bars serve a menu of full-course meals, and many take reservations in advance of popular events—boxing matches, baseball’s World Series, a Triple Crown horse race—that will draw a crowd.

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FIGURE 1.6 Some sports bars offer full-service dining. The focus is on cheering on your favorite teams, but the interest in interesting food choices and fun drinks is growing. Disney Regional Entertainment.

Food and Beverage Combinations The most common form of beverage operation is one that is linked with some kind of foodservice. One type is the restaurant/bar, where drinks and wine are part of the meal service, served by the same wait staff that serves the meal. The bar is often used as the waiting area for the restaurant during busy times. Drinks may be poured at a service bar out of public view or at a pickup station in a bar that serves customers while they are waiting for a table. The major portion of the sales comes from the foodservice. However, the beverage sales often turn the profit for the enterprise. The only added costs are for the wine, beer, and liquor, the bartender, and a minimum investment in equipment; the other necessities, service personnel and the facility itself, are built into the restaurant operation.

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Another type of food-beverage combination is the bar that offers light food in addition to drinks. In this case the beverages and the bar atmosphere dominate, and the major sales volume comes from the bar. But the food is a nice sideline that attracts customers and prolongs their stay. Typical menu items are appetizers. Traditional fare often includes: nachos, chips or crudités and dips, spiced chicken wings, and stuffed potato skins. However, with interest revving up for organic, exotic and ever-more titillating taste sensations, more food-beverage combo bars are offering rolled-on-thespot sushi, domestic and imported cheeses, stone-baked pizzas and skewers of grilled chicken, shrimp and lamb. In order to woo more customers, many food and beverage bars are also adding Happy Hour specials on both food and beverage choices. In the past, during the 1980s especially, Happy Hours would include buffets of free food. Today’s Happy Hours usually feature discounted prices on food and beverages. A special variation of the food-beverage combination is the wine bar, which first appeared during the 1970s as Americans discovered and learned to appreciate wines. Here, the customer can choose from a selection of wines by the glass or by the bottle, beginning with inexpensive house wines and going up in quality and price as far as the entrepreneur cares to go. Some wine bars offer inexpensive one-ounce tastes (or groups of these one-ounce samples, known as wine flights) to enable guests to sample a number of wines. A full menu, or fruit and cheese platters and upscale hors d’oeuvres, can be served. There are inherent problems in running wine bars. The first is, of course, that serving only wine tends to limit the clientele to wine lovers. Some urban areas have enough wine enthusiasts to support a profitable enterprise; they respond to quality and expertise, and they attend and appreciate special wine tastings, classes, and wine-centered celebrations. This enthusiasm, however, raises a second difficulty: Purchasing appropriate wines requires an expertise few people have and may require a financial investment few are willing to make. As a result, many wine bars serve liquor and beer as well. This broadens their appeal and allows them to realize the necessary profit margin. In effect, they are simply bars that specialize in wine sales and wine knowledge. Other wine bars may broaden their offerings by serving meals, thereby becoming restaurants with an emphasis on wines. Some also sell wines at retail, offering customers discounts for volume (one case or more) purchases. This combination of on-premise service and take-home sales is not an option everywhere. Beverage laws in many areas do not allow it. Many wine bars have implemented another marketing feature: The wine tasting, perhaps including a discussion with the featured vintner, can pull in customers who might not otherwise come in the door. Beer aficionados also have their own version of the wine bar. At a brewpub, beer is brewed and served right on the premises. The result: fresh, natural beers and ales, strong in flavor and aroma, with special seasonal offerings. Developed by small individual entrepreneurs and hobbyists, the beverage sets the theme of the restaurant. At least one shiny brew kettle is likely to be a major part of the décor, and the menu typically contains hearty, casual cuisine chosen to complement the beer. As popular as brewpubs are in many areas of the United States, they are not legal everywhere; some states still do not allow the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages on the same premises.

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A popular type of food-beverage combination links a bar and a restaurant on an equal, semi-independent basis, with a common roof, theme, management team, and services that complement each other. The bar and restaurant areas are housed in separate portions of the building, and they may be open at slightly different hours to serve both the drop-in bar customer and the mealtime patron. The food/drink sales ratio is likely to reflect equal status for food and drink, with bar and restaurant each doing better than one would without the other. In many cases neither side could make a go of it alone, but together the customer attraction and income are doubled, while the overhead costs are split between them. Yet another new trend in beverage-and-food combination is the distillery and restaurant. The on-site distillery is usually housed behind floor-to-ceiling “windows,” allowing eating and drinking customers a glimpse of what it takes to make the spirits they are enjoying.

Bars and Smoking The cigar bar has been a trendy addition to the beverage scene—and profitable. Customers who enjoy high-priced cigars also have the opportunity to order premium spirits, wines, beers, and after-dinner drinks to accompany them. The cigar boom is not legal in all venues, since smoking is prohibited in many public places by local and/or state ordinance. Places that install heavy-duty ventilation systems and humidors, however—and offer extensive cigar selections, as well as single-malt Scotches, small-batch Bourbons, Cognacs, and ports—are filling an interesting, upscale niche. As of Spring 2009, there is even a cigar bar at one major league baseball stadium, the Cuesta-Rey Cigar Bar at Tropicana Field, home of the Tampa Blue Rays. Sometimes, in states or cities where smoking is illegal in foodservice establishments or public buildings, these businesses must be operated as private clubs that charge membership fees and restrict access to minors. However, likely because of the increased pressure from safety and health advocates, the cigar bar is on the wane. However, another trend—the hookah bar—is definitely waxing. At the end of 2008, there were 470 hookah bars listed on the website Hookah-Bars.com in the United States, and an average of five open every month. Most hookah bar enthusiasts are in the under-30 crowd and have welcomed the trendy water pipe smoking as the new, hip thing to do. However, with most states banning cigarette smoking in degrees small and large in public places, cigar and hookah bars may not be longlasting establishments. This brings up a controversial issue in the bar industry today. In many cities and states, allowing bar customers to smoke indoors is no longer the prerogative of the business owner. At this writing, 25 states, Washington, DC, and Puerto Rico have passed smoke-free (Clean Indoor Air or “CIA”) laws that include restaurants and bars; four others (Florida, Idaho, Louisiana, and Nevada) exempt “standalone” bars. Even in the southeastern United States, where most states have not passed smoking prohibitions, hundreds of cities and counties have passed their own local ordinances.

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Generally, although the individual laws are quite specific and worded very technically, a business is considered a bar if it earns most of its profit from alcohol sales and refuses entry to minors; it is considered a restaurant if it earns most of its profit from food sales and serves customers of all ages. Most Canadian provinces and territories also are smoke-free by law, as are almost 20 nations, from Bermuda to France, and Panama to Norway. CIA laws are not being passed to harass smokers or put restaurateurs out of business, but to minimize workers’ (and the general public’s) exposure to secondhand smoke. Even the tobacco companies have agreed that cigarette smoke contains a variety of harmful chemicals, including carcinogens. In past years, these companies suggested installing larger, more powerful ventilation systems to whisk the smoke away. However, multiple scientific studies have shown that, while ventilation dilutes the smoke and helps with odor control, it does not rid the air of the chemicals. Further, state-of-the-art ventilation is expensive, and many small businesses (or those who rent instead of own the property) simply cannot afford it. It is easier to ask smokers to light up outdoors, or not at all. The dilemma for businesses that are hospitality-oriented is how to make smokers feel welcome without allowing them to smoke. We’ll discuss the options in greater detail in Chapter 3. One interesting side note: Smoking in general is on a downward trend. According to the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, about 20 percent of Americans smoked in 2007, down from 23 percent in 1998. Experts speculate this may be for health reasons, but also because of increased prices and ever-increasing taxes applied to cigarettes. For instance, on April 1, 2009, the federal excise tax on every pack of cigarettes jumped from $.39 to $1.01. After decades of “smoky bars,” there are those who will always associate smoking with drinking. The modern-day challenge for restaurant and bar owners is to get customers to stay and drink without the extra enticement of allowing smoking in the establishment.

Hotel Beverage Operations In hotels, the beverage operation differs in many ways from the bar or the bar-restaurant combination. There might be three or four bars under one roof, each with a different purpose and a different ambience, say a lobby bar, a cocktail lounge, a restaurant bar, or a nightclub with dancing. In addition, there is room service, with a food menu that includes mixed drinks, beer, wine, and Champagne. Above all, there is banquet service, catering to conference, convention, and reception needs. Typically, the client makes beverage choices in advance of the event, which are served from portable bars by extra personnel hired for the occasion. Individual rooms often have a minibar, a small refrigerator or cabinet stocked with a modest inventory of snacks and drinks, ostensibly for the convenience of hotel guests. Most business travelers find the unabashed price gouging irritating. Who would willingly pay $7 for a bottle of water or $5 for a tiny bag of pretzels, fully triple what the same items would cost elsewhere on hotel property? Industry experts now suggest that nothing in the minibar be priced higher than a comparable item sold in

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the hotel’s vending machines. According to Lodging magazine, there are three keys to minibar profitability: 1. The unit must be installed so that it is easy to use and its contents must be clearly visible. 2. A reliable system must be in place for prompt restocking of cabinets and correct billing of guests. (The advent of “smart” technology has been helpful in this area.) 3. Finally, guests must be enticed to somehow overlook the high prices of minibar goods! In response to the last point, some hotels package other types of items to sell, such as logo-emblazoned nightshirts, “intimacy kits,” and grooming items, in addition to snack foods and mixed-drink ingredients. Even so, the minibar is not a major moneymaker for most hotels, and it does siphon some business away from the hotel’s other food and beverage venues, especially room service. On average, half of all hotel guests access their room’s minibar during a stay. The item most likely to be purchased is not alcohol but bottled water. A consumer preference survey conducted by TripAdvisors.com indicated that one-third never touch the minibar, and 94 percent said they’d use it more often “if the prices were more reasonable.” Food and beverage directors of large and/or luxury hotels insist the minibar is a necessary amenity for its sheer customer convenience, even as they acknowledge the increased labor costs of restocking and maintenance. Others are abandoning their minibars, however, citing results of guest surveys as well as upkeep costs, primarily the labor involved in the checking and restocking them. Instead, they may provide small refrigerators so guests can keep their own snacks and beverages chilled. Perhaps the most daunting challenge of hotel beverage service is its diversity, coupled with the up-and-down nature of demand. Since a hotel’s primary clientele is overnight guests, demand for beverages rises and falls according to the occupancy rate. This, too, is unpredictable: A hotel can be completely full for a convention and yet have very little bar trade, depending on the type of convention it is hosting. On the other hand, a very low occupancy rate might net a lot of bar business. Again, it just depends on who the hotel guests are. Resort and luxury hotels often have several bars and restaurants, with a variety of entertainment, food, and drink, to keep the hotel guests spending money on the premises, as well as to attract an outside clientele, while a small commercial hotel in a big city might need only one bar with several stations to serve its lobby customers, a cocktail lounge, coffee shop, dining room, and room service.

Airline Beverage Service Another type of beverage service that must adapt to special conditions is that on airline flights. The restrictions of space, time, weight, and equipment are formidable. (Cruise lines and passenger trains have similar storage limitations.) Of necessity,

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airlines’ drink menus are limited. Liquors, beers, wines, and a few types of cocktail mixes are handed out in small, individual bottles or cans. The cups are nesting, plastic disposables, except in first- and business-class cabins. Flight attendants push a beverage cart down the aisle and, working from both ends, can garnish glasses and fill them with ice, pour beverages or hand out the individual-sized drink components, and collect the money. The process is a marvel of organization. Tight control systems follow the little bottles everywhere, since they are extraordinarily tempting, both to airline employees and customers. In recent years, wider enthusiasm for food and wine has prompted airline companies to seek advice from high-profile wine consultants to upgrade their beverage service. In some cases, the in-flight menus reflect the local tastes and preferences of the destination city or country. For higher-paying passengers, drinks are free and service typically includes real glassware, a choice of wines, Champagne for breakfast, and sometimes specialty drinks.

Similarities and Differences Grouping types of beverage service into these rather arbitrary categories does not really adequately describe the character of individual enterprises. Many establishments do not fit handily into a specific category, and those within categories can be as different as day and night. Yet all categories have certain similarities. They all sell alcoholic beverages. They have similar staff structures, patterns of purchasing and inventory, and ways of controlling the merchandise. They all must meet certain government requirements and operate within certain government regulations. Even the prices charged for the same drinks are not wildly different from one type of place to another. Still, no two bar and beverage operations are alike unless they are part of a chain and are required to have uniform menus, décor, pricing, and other policies. A successful business meets the needs and desires of a certain clientele and strives to be deliberately different from others serving a similar clientele in order to stand out in the competition for customers. Other major reasons for the wide variety of bar operations are simple: the special circumstances of each operation, as well as the personalities, desires, and budgets of their owners. To be successful, however, the entrepreneur must put clientele above all else in shaping his or her enterprise.

SUMMING UP Throughout history, alcoholic beverages have played an important role in most cultures. People drank for many good reasons: for food and health, worship and celebration, pleasure and fellowship, wisdom and truth. As civilization developed, the inns, alehouses, and taverns were central to the growth of towns, travel, and the communication of ideas.

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There have always been people who question the propriety of alcohol use and, in past centuries, they had plenty to complain about. Drunkenness and irresponsibility, illegal activity, and violent crime seemed to go hand in hand with alcohol abuse, and with a perception of decaying moral values that defied traditional religious beliefs. The pendulum of public opinion swung from acceptance, to fear and disgust, as women led the anti-drinking charge in many areas after seeing families destroyed by a father’s alcoholism. First, the Temperance movement sought to shame people into giving up alcohol. Then came Prohibition, the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which outlawed the manufacture and sale of alcohol except in certain, extremely limited circumstances. Prohibition lasted about 14 years (from 1920 to 1933) and, ironically, created problems even more difficult to solve: a complex, illegal network of bootleg home distillers, secret bars known as speakeasies, and organized crime’s entrance into the lucrative business of selling what people could not buy legally. Today’s liquor laws still mirror some of the restrictions first created during Prohibition. While alcohol use remains controversial, an attitude of moderation and responsibility has enabled the beverage industry to grow and flourish once again in the United States. Today’s consumer is likely to drink less but is interested in higher-quality products, even if they cost more. Establishments that specialize in wine sales, brewing and selling beer, full-bar service, and a variety of food-and-drink combinations often include some sort of entertainment. You can buy a drink on an airplane, in a hotel room, or in your favorite neighborhood restaurant—and no one threatens you with a hatchet or a baseball bat!

POINTS TO PONDER 1. What were the most important uses of alcohol in ancient civilizations? How has this changed? 2. Why did some cultures associate alcohol use with wisdom? 3. What was the food value of alcohol in early cultures? Why did people drink alcohol when they had other beverage choices? 4. What is distillation? 5. How has alcohol been used as currency in past centuries? Give two examples. 6. Name one positive and one negative aspect of Prohibition. (Your own opinion can, and should, color your answer.) 7. What are the reasons most Americans are drinking less alcohol? 8. Why is a beverage-only bar not often seen anymore? 9. What would you have to find out before selling wines by the case in a wine bar or opening your own brewpub? 10. What are some of the challenges specific to hotel beverage service? 11. What are some of the new beverage industry trends? 12. Which spirit has seen the most growth in recent years?

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TERMS OF THE TRADE ale amphorae aqua vitae Bacchus Bourbon brewpub brown goods call brands cigar bar cover charge distillation distilled spirits dry and wet Eighteenth Amendment hookah bar lager mash bill microbrewery minibar mocktails

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moonshine Ninkasi pasteurization pitching Prohibition pub rectification speakeasy sports bar tall drinks tastes Temperance Twenty-First Amendment viticulture vitus vinifera white goods wine bar wine flight

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A CONVERSATION WITH . . . BRET STANLEY Director of Beverage Education

Bret Stanley got his first bartending job at age 16, in a bar with a dirt floor in Mexico. He also tended bar in Chicago, Los Angeles, and Arizona but says he began thinking of it as a career in 1995 when he moved to Las Vegas, Nevada, and was hired at the Red Square, part of the upscale Mandalay Bay Hotel and Casino. He soon became the bar manager there. Why bartending? “I spent a lot of time working in the food and beverage industry, and would always end up having to fill in for bartenders who didn’t show up for their shifts,” he recalls. “The history of bartending and alcohol just fascinates me, and the job fits my personality.” He has been teaching bartending and beverage management courses for Crescent Schools in Las Vegas since 2003—and uses this book in his classes, by the way. “For a long time in Vegas, there weren’t very many good bartenders,” says Stanley. “I used to say if you sat at the end of a bar long enough, somebody thought you worked there and put you on the schedule! When I went out, I would get so frustrated with the bad service that, when the opportunity came up for me to teach, I jumped at it. Hopefully, my students will go out there and take

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those jobs away from people who don’t deserve them. “The great thing about teaching,” he adds, “is that all of what seemed to be useless information that I was collecting in my bar jobs over the years, about the business and the products, isn’t just useful in terms of bar trivia bets! Now, it is of benefit to my students.” Q: Is it hard to be a bartender? A: No, it’s not. But it is hard to be a good bartender, because it takes work—daily practice, always taking that extra initiative to learn as much as you can. It is also a never-ending process. New drinks come out—new concepts, new tools and new ways of tweaking an old drink. You can pour beers and shots all day, or you can move into more challenging mixologist and master mixologist roles. Q: How much opportunity does the typical bartender have to progress like that, especially in a corporate situation where there are already specific drink recipes and procedures in place? A: Fortunately, people like Dale DeGroff and Tony Abou-Ganim came to this industry, people who have encouraged their staff to learn more about the products. When Tony ran the beverage operation at the Bellagio (a Las Vegas hotel and casino), continuing education was a big priority, and he wanted his people to come up with new cocktails. If those cocktails were good, they would make a standardized recipe and equip the bars to make it. So, I’d say even 10 years ago, it was almost unheard of. Today, a lot more places are receptive to the idea of mixology and giving their staff the creative license to do that.

Q: There are some unique aspects to Las Vegas bartending. Can you describe a few of them? A: In Las Vegas, they don’t care how many other places you’ve worked— you’re not a Vegas bartender. The market is somewhat unusual because it is very much a union market. Most of the bartenders are part of the Culinary Union. There are good and bad points to being in a union. One of the downsides, I think, is that the bartender works an eight-hour shift pouring drinks and goes home. So, they can become somewhat lazy: “I don’t have to clean up, because I’ve got a bar porter. I don’t have to restock, the barback does that. I don’t do inventory, the bar manager does that.” One of the biggest shocks for me when I started bartending here was that the cocktail servers were upset because I garnished the drinks. “That’s our job,” they told me. “We do the garnishing!” The other interesting thing is, you would assume Las Vegas would be the mecca of the service industry, but it’s not. I think that’s because it is such a transient town. Most of the customers aren’t regulars—they get on a plane and they’re gone in a few days. So the thought is, “I’ll give you the service that I deem is necessary,” as opposed to going above and beyond to please the customer. I think it is partly our fault as customers, too—we’re so used to inadequate service that we expect it, and put up with it. Q: What is the one thing most often overlooked by bartenders and servers? A: Customer service. A lot of people believe, especially in a tipped industry, that they deserve tips—but that’s not right. You get tips if you

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give customer service. “Tips” means “to insure proper service,” and that starts with the little things, like smiling and saying “hi.” If you have a nice personality and engage with the customer and seem to genuinely care about them, then little mistakes—the food takes a little longer to get to the table; you accidentally garnish their Manhattan with an onion—will be overlooked. I tell my students, “The little things are the glue that hold everything else together.” If you don’t pay attention to those little things, you’ve got no glue—and everything falls apart without the glue. Q: How has technology changed the basic work procedures behind the bar? A: I think the biggest change has been the use of the POS system; it has made our jobs a little easier, by allowing us to keep drink recipes on computer and so on. In terms of other equipment, it seems like something new comes out every day. Some of them are gimmicks; some are absolutely worthless. A few are invaluable—a good hand-juicer that you can use to squeeze a fresh lime quickly and efficiently, for instance. For the most part, the classic style of equipment and the classic use of equipment will never change. The Boston shaker is still your best piece of equipment. You need a stripper or a zester, a good bar knife, a good bottle opener. A muddler—nobody really likes to muddle drinks, but I suggest they have two muddlers: one with cleats at the tip, that can really get at the citrus; and a nice, smooth one to use when you just have to break up a little bit of mint. Those will last forever. The biggest key to it all is, no matter what equipment you have, you need to have the training to use it correctly. If you’ve got a hammer in your hand, it doesn’t necessarily mean you’re ready to hit something! In terms of speed, I can handpour multiple drinks faster than I can make them using a preset, liquor-dispensing gun. But from

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a management aspect, the preset gun pours accurate amounts and keeps track of every drop in real time, and that’s also important when you have to keep track of every single dime. To be able to pinpoint any loss immediately means you can take that loss off the books immediately, too. Q: Loss prevention is huge in this business, isn’t it? A: Absolutely, and we talk about it a lot in my classes. Most theft is a crime of opportunity, so the goal is to prevent the opportunity. I actually show my bar management students ways to steal liquor—not so they’ll go out and do it, of course, but so they’ll know what to look for. For example, I can short-pour 10 drinks, I can sell five and pocket all that money and come out even. In a bar, you’ve got a product that is easy to manipulate to make you extra money; plus you’re dealing with a lot of cash and a lot of stuff goes without receipts. In Las Vegas, bartenders have to have what is called a sheriff’s card, which is basically a bonding card. If you get fired for stealing, you get that card revoked and can’t work as a bartender here, ever again. There are also gaming control cards for casino workers. It’s not worth stealing $20 to lose not only your job but also your career. Q: Are students surprised by the amount of paperwork and drudgery and regulations—the parts of the business that aren’t fun? A: They are. When we go through the chapter in your book, “Planning for Profit,” and they see all the math involved, they think their heads are going to explode! We take a full day to go through the potential salesvalue method of measuring losses. I put a graph on the board and we break down case price to bottle price to ounce price, punch the ounce prices into the drink recipes, cost the drink, and put the price of that drink into our graph to get the potential sales value for, say, a bottle of vodka for the day.

Why do they need to understand this? I tell them, if you’re going to own your own bar and you let somebody else have control over your money, you’re going to lose your money. So, you have to know what you’re doing—and if you hire others to help, you have to know what they’re doing. Q: How about safety and sanitation—how important are those priorities to the typical bar? A: Safety and sanitation routines are absolutely necessities, and not just behind the bar. When customers notice that your bathroom isn’t clean, they question the cleanliness of your glassware, of your bartender’s hands, of your kitchen. In terms of safety, I believe it should be a standard requirement to go above and beyond what the local health department requires. A clean bar, that looks clean and smells good, is where people want to be and is a better, safer place to work. Q: How much money can a bartender expect to make? A: It honestly depends on the bar and the shift you work, but it also depends on you. I’ve tended bar on graveyard shifts, from midnight to 8 A.M.—and I would go to the restaurants and other service businesses that close earlier and tell their employees, like waiters and bartenders, “Hey, when you get off work, come to my bar.” This is a 24-hour city, and you’ve got to take advantage of that. If you can set yourself up to cater to the service industry, you can make a killing as a bartender. They tip really well! Q: If you’re hired as a barback, how can you make sure you stand out and can eventually get a promotion? A: Do your job efficiently and, the big thing is, without complaining. Unfortunately, particularly union bartenders have a tendency to not want

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to tip their barbacks, or not tip them very much, so it’s easy for a barback to feel they’re not being appreciated. But if a barback does their job without fail and without complaint and keeps their opinions to themselves, they’re the ones who are going to move up faster.

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Q: What parts of running a bar business just can’t be taught in a book or in a classroom? A: Common sense and the ability to “read” a customer. Here again, I think bartending is the pinnacle of customer service. You’re oneon-one with these people, and you have to be able to “read” what they

want—not what they say, but what they need. When a guy comes in, sits down at your bar and is clearly brooding, do you try to get him to talk—or pour the drink and let him sit there quietly? I can’t teach you that, but a good bartender will know. I tell students, ‘I can train you—but I can’t raise you!’

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lcohol has always had a Dr. Jeckyl/Mr. Hyde persona—that is, its positive attributes have always existed side by side with the potential for alcohol abuse. In today’s world, there is a pervasive and heightened awareness of the damage alcohol can cause. Implications in health and other matters range from automobile accidents caused by drunk drivers to the rising incidence of alcoholism. For the beverage operator, the negative aspects of alcohol raise risks of third-party liability and can result in soaring insurance costs. Sellers and servers of alcoholic beverages must continue to stay fully informed—not only about the beverages but also about the laws governing the sale of alcohol, which include how to deal with intoxicated customers. It is critical to examine the two-sides of the coin of serving responsibly. Yes, offering alcohol is a pleasurable addition to the dining or entertainment experience: It can have a relaxing effect on people, it creates a sense of camaraderie among friends, and it whets the appetite and can enhance a meal by complementing the flavors of the foods being served. Just as important as encouraging guests to enjoy their beverages, however, is the role sellers and servers of alcohol play in safeguarding their clientele from the unpleasant, and potentially dangerous, medical and legal effects of excessive alcohol consumption. THIS CHAPTER WILL HELP YOU . . . 䡲 Understand the effects of alcohol in the human body, both positive and negative, from health claims to the latest hangover research. 䡲 Understand the impact of alcoholism in today’s society. 䡲 Become familiar with the alcohol-related laws in effect in most areas, as well as the ongoing controversies they generate. 䡲 Learn the importance of responsible alcohol service and how to spot and handle customers who may have had too much to drink. 䡲 Set specific alcohol service policies and train staff members. 䡲 Become proactive on behalf of the beverage service industry to educate consumers and uphold a reputation as a responsible business. 䡲 Value the responsibility of keeping up to date on the latest health benefits and/or dangers of alcohol consumption.

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romoting responsible alcohol service is good business for many reasons. First, we can help reduce the number of deaths and injuries in automobile accidents caused by drunk drivers, which are all the more tragic because they are preventable. In this way, we protect not only our customers but also the entire community. And, we protect the reputation of our own business. A loud or belligerent drunk at the next table can make a lasting or even a permanent adverse impression on guests. So, too, can an employee who handles the situation badly. Finally, we protect each employee and the establishment itself from violating state liquor laws and, subsequently, from damaging and expensive lawsuits, which can, ultimately, mean the death of a business that cannot recover from the financial strain or negative publicity. The bottom line? Responsible alcohol service is part of protecting our business. Before we can learn to offer responsible alcohol service, we need to take a closer look at how alcohol affects human health and behavior. As you’ll see, research results on these topics are mixed . . . and often controversial.

ALCOHOL AND HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY The alcohol found in liquor, beer, and wine is ethanol, which is a form of drug; it is a depressant or tranquilizer. In moderate doses, ethanol can have beneficial effects, causing relaxation, stimulating the appetite, heightening pleasure, and providing a sense of euphoria. In larger doses, though, it becomes toxic, a form of poison. The body does not digest alcohol the same way it digests food. Rather than entering the digestive system, alcohol passes through the wall of the stomach or small intestine directly into the bloodstream—and an alcoholic drink taken on an empty stomach empties itself into the bloodstream within about 20 minutes. If there is food in the stomach, the transfer is delayed, especially if the foods contain fats, such as cheese, meat, eggs, and milk. Carbonated beverages in the digestive system, on the other hand, speed the transfer. By way of the bloodstream, alcohol travels through the body wherever there is water to the brain, lungs, kidneys, heart, and liver until it is broken down (in the liver) into carbon dioxide and water (see Figure 2.1). The liver does this at the rate of one-third to one-half ounce per hour; the rest of the alcohol continues to circulate in the bloodstream. This amount is less than that contained in a typical 1-1⁄ 2 ounce cocktail made with an 80-proof spirit. Multiply this amount by several drinks, and it is clear that alcohol will still be circulating in the bloodstream several hours after it has been ingested. Consider that: 䡲

The liver metabolizes about 90 percent of the alcohol consumed. The liver is the organ most often affected by alcoholism, since it is the “first defense” organ (after the stomach) when attempting to disperse the alcohol. The remaining 10 percent is eliminated through the lungs and in urine. Alcohol reaches the brain within a few minutes of entering the bloodstream.

Alcohol’s effect on the brain is the key to both the pleasures and the problems with alcohol consumption. The first effect of alcohol is to stimulate pleasant feelings and

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A. BRAIN Alcohol can affect brain function in as little as 3 minutes. Long-term alcohol abuse can impair brain and nerve function by accelerating the loss of brain cells. B. MOUTH Small amounts of alcohol are absorbed into the soft tissues of the mouth. C. ESOPHAGUS Alcohol is toxic to the cells lining the esophagus; heavy drinking increases the risk of esophageal cancer. D. HEART Alcohol abuse can lead to high blood pressure, scar-tissue formation, and increased heart size due to the accumulation of fat. E. LIVER Between 80 and 90 percent of alcohol intake is metabolized here. Heavy drinking causes the liver to become fatty and enlarged, which leads to scarring known as cirrhosis. F. STOMACH Up to 20 percent of the alcohol in a drink is absorbed into the bloodstream from the stomach. Alcohol abuse causes inflammation, pain, bleeding, and various forms of gastritis. G. PANCREAS Alcohol abuse inflames the pancreas much the way it does the liver and heart, causing dysfunction and possible failure of the organ over time. H. SMALL INTESTINE Up to 80 percent of the alcohol in a drink is absorbed into the bloodstream here. Heavy drinking can cause inflammation, pain, and bleeding.

FIGURE 2.1 The path of alcohol through the human body. overall relaxation. As drinking continues, the concentration of alcohol in both the bloodstream and the brain increases, diminishing inhibitions and judgment, making the drinker more gregarious and expansive but less able to accurately perceive reality. As intoxication takes over brain function, the alcohol impairs motor ability, muscle coordination, reaction time, eyesight, and night vision—all the normal skills that drivers need to get home safely. It does not take a great number of drinks to reach this point, and drinking coffee, walking around, and other efforts to “sober up” do not have an impact on blood-alcohol content. This is because nothing can prod the liver into breaking down the alcohol any faster. A drinker in this condition—that is, intoxicated—is unfit to drive a vehicle. Intoxication is measured by the percent of alcohol in the blood. The typical definition of intoxication used to be a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.10 percent, but in the first few years of this century, almost every state lowered the level to 0.08 percent as a condition of receiving federal highway-construction funding. (More about federal dollars in a moment.) To some extent, the size of the person affects

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THE TOP TEN ALCOHOL-CONSUMING COUNTRIES Per capita annual consumption (in gallons) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Portugal Luxembourg France Hungary Spain Czech Republic Denmark Germany Austria Switzerland

2.98 2.95 2.87 2.66 2.66 2.64 2.61 2.50 2.50 2.43

his or her blood alcohol level: Assuming the same quantity of alcohol has been consumed, the heavier a person’s body weight, the lower the percent of his or her blood alcohol. This is because alcohol mixes with the water in the body. This, in turn, is why women, who naturally have less water and a higher percentage of body fat than men, tend to have higher blood-alcohol contents than men of similar height and weight who have consumed the same amount of alcohol. The alcohol is more highly concentrated in the women’s bodies than the men’s.

How Much Do We Drink?

The most recent National Institutes of Health figures (2008) estimate that 62 percent of Americans drink alcohol. Ten percent say they “drink daily,” and about 10 percent have problems with “excessive” alcohol consumption. However, the United States is nowhere FIGURE 2.2 Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation near the top of the list for drinkers. In fact, we rank and Development, 2005. 32nd in the world, with an overall consumption rate of 1.74 gallons per person per year. As a nation, we have the strictest youth drinking laws of all the Western nations, and the highest minimum drinking age in the world (see Figure 2.2 for the Top 10 Alcohol-Consuming Countries). In 1995 when the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) revised its Dietary Guidelines for Americans, which the agency does routinely every five years, it made headlines by stating for the first time that “moderate drinking may lower the risk of heart disease” and that “alcoholic beverages have been used to enhance the enjoyment of meals by many societies throughout human history.” How times change: In contrast, the 1990 guidelines had stated unequivocally, “Drinking has no net health benefits.” Both the 1995 and 2000 guidelines balance those statements by warning that too much alcohol consumption can be harmful, raising one’s risk of everything from high blood pressure to suicide. The guidelines also clearly state that alcohol should not be consumed by children or adolescents, women who are pregnant or trying to conceive, anyone taking medication of any kind, those who plan to drive or engage in an activity that requires alertness and skill, or anyone who cannot restrict his or her drinking to moderate levels. The latest USDA guidelines, released in 2005, continue the agency’s tone of cautious acceptance. An excerpt: The consumption of alcohol can have beneficial or harmful effects depending on the amount consumed, age and other characteristics of the person consuming the alcohol, and specifics of the situation. . . . Alcohol may have beneficial effects when consumed in moderation. The lowest all-cause mortality occurs

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at an intake of one to two drinks per day. The lowest coronary heart disease mortality also occurs at an intake of one to two drinks per day. Morbidity and mortality are highest among those drinking large amounts of alcohol.

ALCOHOL AND HUMAN HEALTH In the relationship of alcohol to human health, there are pros and cons, and it may be surprising to see that science continues to find health benefits from alcohol. In 1990, an editorial in the American Journal of Public Health said that after 40 years of research into diet and health issues, only two conclusions could be drawn consistently from both laboratory and clinical studies: that exercise and drinking moderate amounts of alcohol are good for humans. And, according to a 2009 Harvard School of Public Health Web article, moderate consumption of alcohol can be beneficial in combating cardiovascular disease, diabetes, stress, and more. Based on these statements, you might think that doctors would start prescribing a drink or two per day for their patients in the same way they prescribe regular physical activity as part of a healthy lifestyle. But it’s not that simple. To determine what “moderate drinking” really is, we must look at it from a health perspective. Generally, an alcoholic drink contains the equivalent of one-half ounce of pure (ethanol) alcohol. In a glass this translates into: 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲

12 ounces of beer, at 5 percent alcohol content 4 ounces of wine, at 12 percent alcohol content 1¼ ounces of distilled spirit, at 40 percent alcohol content (80 proof) 1 ounce of distilled spirit, at 50 percent alcohol content (100 proof)

Obviously, the sizes of the glass and the serving can affect how strong a single drink actually is; moreover, many drinks are made with higher-proof alcohol, such as 151-proof rum, or cordials and liqueurs, which range in alcohol content from 20 to 40 percent. But based on the preceding list, health experts suggest that one drink for women and two drinks for men is what can be considered moderate intake. Scientists continue to study alcohol intake in relation to all kinds of medical conditions. Red wine, in particular, appears to show promise for reducing inflammation, and fighting bacteria and even cancer. The best news for the hospitality industry came in the 1980s, when multiple studies revealed an apparent link between moderate drinking—again, particularly red wine—and a lower incidence of heart disease, which is the leading cause of death in North America. So, this is where we’ll begin our health discussion.

Wine and Health Wine contains phenolic compounds, part of what gives grapes their color, known as tannins. These compounds are antioxidants. Antioxidants break down “bad” cholesterol (LDL) and help prevent both clogging of arteries and blood clots that can

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lead to strokes. Antioxidants have also proven to be effective at inhibiting some types of cancer. Resveratrol is the primary antioxidant in wine. It is a flavonoid (a substance that gives fresh fruit and vegetables their colors), a component of grape skins that grapevines make naturally in response to stress, lack of nutrients, or fungal infections. Red wines contain more resveratrol than white wines simply because of the way they are made: The color of the grape skin gives the wine its color, so red wines have more “skin contact” than whites before the juice is strained off to make into wine. Sherry, a fortified wine, has also been found to have cholesterol-lowering capability. Recent studies of resveratrol have focused on whether it has the potential to prolong the human lifespan by mimicking another process known as caloric restriction (CR). Without going into too much detail, scientists for years have observed that obesity shortens mammals’ lives and, conversely, eating 30 to 40 percent fewer calories can slow the aging process. Resveratrol appears to work in the same way as CR, although researchers are not sure why. In other studies, moderate wine consumption also appears to be linked to increased bone density in older women; boosting the body’s ability to fight colds; preventing Type 2 diabetes; and, as you will read in the section on “Wine and Aging,” to delaying dementia in some individuals. Even the leftover skins and seeds from the crushed grapes, known as pomace, might have beneficial uses. A recent Turkish study indicates that these mashed-up leftovers inhibit the growth of more than a dozen different harmful bacteria, some of which cause food-borne illnesses. The researchers are experimenting with the idea of drying the pomace to use as a food preservative. Gin has been found to have some of the same anti-inflammatory effects as red wine, but a 2004 study at Philadelphia’s Thomas Jefferson University reported that wine is more effective.

Alcohol’s Effects on the Heart and Brain To understand the correlation between alcohol and the heart, we must distinguish between “good” cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and bad cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL). To help prevent heart disease, people need to increase their HDL levels because this good cholesterol cleans fatty buildup from blood vessels. Ethanol, the alcohol in alcoholic beverages, raises HDL levels in the bloodstream. This does not happen immediately, but it can be seen over several weeks after moderate daily alcohol intake. Long term, it might take a year to see significant HDL increases, depending on the person. In addition to resveratrol in wines, alcohol itself (ethanol) also contains a beneficial enzyme known as a t-PA antigen. This substance helps prevent chronic internal blood clots, and the anti-clotting benefits take effect within hours of alcohol consumption. There is also interesting research for beer drinkers: The darker the beer, the better it might be for the heart. Darker brews contain more blood-clotting prevention than lighter beers, this is also a result of the flavonoids darker beers contain. While these findings are encouraging to those who advocate responsible drinking, the same

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research emphasizes the dangers of alcohol abuse. Studies in both 1999 (United States) and 2000 (Finland) found that the heart attack and stroke protections from moderate drinking are relatively small, and they are offset by the greater risks of drinking too much. These include other types of heart disease, cancer, liver problems, and even a higher chance of violent death.

Alcohol/Drug Interactions. Brain cells are particularly sensitive to alcohol exposure. The first part of the brain to be affected by drinking is the frontal lobe, where judgment and reasoning functions take place. After more drinks, the vision and speech centers of the brain are sedated, along with voluntary muscle control. Breathing and heart action are the last to be affected, but by then the person would have imbibed so much as to risk death. Some people drink alcoholic beverages as a kind of social anesthetic, to help them relax or relieve anxiety in social situations. Because alcohol relieves inhibitions, some have the mistaken opinion that it works as a stimulant. In fact, it works in the body as a depressant that sedates nerve cells. So a major concern for physicians is the use of alcohol by patients who are also taking medications, especially antidepressants. More than 2,800 prescription drugs and another 2,000 over-the-counter medications are available in the United States, and about 18 percent of the U.S. adult population takes three or more prescription drugs. At least 150 medications interact harmfully with alcohol, and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) estimates adverse reactions might be a factor in 25 percent of emergencyroom admissions. Why? The simplest explanation is that, in the body, the alcohol “competes” with the drug for the same set of enzymes in the stomach and bloodstream that metabolize both substances. The drug can, therefore, remain in a person’s system longer than it should, or it cannot be absorbed correctly because the alcohol is “taking up” all of the enzyme action. Drinking while taking prescription drugs can also increase the potency of either the alcohol or the drug, especially the sedative effect of some antidepressants and antihistamines. A chemical found in some types of wine and beer, called tyramine, interacts with some types of antidepressants, such as monoamine oxidase inhibitors, to increase blood pressure, possibly to dangerous levels. Drinking alcohol may cause headaches, nausea, and/or dizziness when combined with everything from antidiabetic medications to heart and circulatory system drugs to antibiotics for treating infections. If there is a cautionary rule, it is ask your doctor and/or pharmacist about the impact of even a small, occasional amount of alcohol on the drugs—both prescription and nonprescription—that you are taking.

Alcohol and Women. You’ve already learned that alcohol is more concentrated in a woman’s body than in a man’s, even when their height and weight are similar. We have also discussed the relationship between alcoholic beverages and heart disease. In women, heart disease is slightly less prevalent than in men, and when it occurs, it usually happens later in life. Therefore, it stands to reason that alcohol has more beneficial effects for women at midlife and older than it does for those in their childbearing years. For instance, an ongoing Canadian study that began in the 1990s has followed 3,300 women, all over age 40 and found that those who drank moderately

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(two to nine drinks per week) had fewer than half the cardiovascular risks of women who did not drink at all. Their heart health was assessed at the beginning of the study then reassessed five years later. Interestingly the findings have not shown the same benefits for the 2,600 men in the study. Researchers have promised to continue the study in five-year increments for another two decades. Scientifically speaking, the jury is still out on the question of whether alcohol use contributes to higher breast-cancer levels in women. The figures seem to indicate an increased risk, even among moderate drinkers. The researchers have been unable to pinpoint a conclusive medical reason why this is so, however, so they are hesitant to draw conclusions. Women who are moderate wine drinkers might have lower risks of developing ovarian cancer, but these benefits are not evident in women who drink beer or spirits in moderation. The impact of alcohol on the female body seems to indicate that younger women— in particular those under age 40—should limit their alcohol intake and drink only in moderation. A woman who is trying to become pregnant should be aware that heavy alcohol use by either her or her partner may impair her ability to conceive at all. For moderate drinkers the evidence is less certain. Some clinical research suggests that alcohol may suppress the male reproductive hormone testosterone found in both men and women; however, a 2003 Danish study found that a woman who drinks one or two glasses of wine may find it easier to conceive than either beer drinkers or nondrinkers. The researchers cited wine’s potential side benefit of protecting a woman from infections that can cause sterility. The most controversial issue for women is whether to drink while pregnant. Science indicates that doing so is indeed risky. In the body of a pregnant woman, alcohol passes easily through the placenta into the body of the fetus, and drinking during pregnancy can cause a pattern of physical and mental defects in the child, known collectively as fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) or fetal alcohol effects (FAE). Each year as many as 12,000 children are born in the United States suffering to some degree from FAS symptoms, which include low birth weight, physical deformities, heart defects, mental retardation, or from FAE complications, which include low birth weight, mental retardation, cerebral palsy, neurobehavioral problems, and learning disorders. To counteract those alarming statistics, the federal government now requires all types of alcoholic beverages to carry on their labels the following message: GOVERNMENT WARNING: (1) According to the Surgeon General, women should not drink alcoholic beverages during pregnancy because of the risk of birth defects. (2) Consumption of alcoholic beverages impairs your ability to drive a car or operate machinery, and may cause health problems. The topic of drinking while breastfeeding is also somewhat controversial. A nursing mother who is anxious and tired may find that an occasional drink helps her to relax. A common myth is that alcohol consumption promotes what is known as the “let-down reflex” in a nursing mother, prompting the release of stored milk in the breast to make feeding possible. However, the American Dietetic Association (ADA) says this is not true and, in fact, overconsumption of alcohol might actually inhibit the let-down reflex. The ADA guidelines suggest that if a mother wants to have a drink,

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she should either do so after her child is fed or postpone breastfeeding for at least one hour after consuming the drink. This allows her body to metabolize the alcohol before she nurses the infant.

Alcohol and Teens. An estimated 11 million American kids (between ages 12 and 20) said they use alcohol in a 2005 federal government survey, prompting the U.S. Health and Human Services secretary at the time, Mike Leavitt, to suggest an alcohol awareness campaign beginning in the junior high or middle school years. Research shows that alcohol affects the developing brains of young people (ages 10 to 21) differently than adult brains. Adolescent brains produce more of the chemical dopamine, which helps the brain make the connection between an activity and pleasure or reward. Scientists say the high dopamine level speeds up the process of addiction, prompting kids to crave drinking and then feel extreme discomfort without it. Teens who begin drinking at age 13 have a 45-percent chance of becoming alcohol dependent; for those who don’t begin drinking until age 21, the risk drops to 7 percent. Another key concern about drinking and young brains is that brain plasticity is at its highest in the years from ages 10 to 15—that is, the neurons and their complex circuitry within the brain are physically connecting, changing, and growing in response to learning and new experiences. The more neural connections a person makes, the smarter and more capable he or she becomes. Alcohol can slow, delay, and distort these connections; a teen who has alcohol abuse problems may even have a significantly smaller hippocampus, the portion of the brain responsible for learning and memory. Some types of brain damage related to teen alcohol use are long term and irreversible, according to the American Medical Association. More than two-thirds of young people who start drinking before age 15 also are more likely to try illegal drugs, making alcohol a “gateway” substance with potentially deadly consequences.

Alcohol and Aging. Older adults metabolize alcohol more slowly than young people. As the body ages, it loses lean muscle mass and water content, so the alcohol reaches a higher concentration than in a younger person’s body. Older stomachs do not secrete as many enzymes to start the breakdown of the alcohol, which leaves a bigger job for the liver. Blood flows slightly more slowly in older people, meaning that alcohol is eliminated from their bodies more slowly. The result? Blood alcohol levels are 30 to 40 percent higher in a senior citizen than in a young person who consumes the identical amount of alcohol. An added complication is that older adults tend to have myriad medical conditions that require prescription medications. An estimated 17 percent of adults over age 60 are alcohol abusers; however, they are sometimes harder to spot because the symptoms of alcoholism—for example, trembling, sleeping problems, memory loss, unsteady gait—are not uncommon among older people. If they are retired or live alone, there are fewer people around to notice their behaviors. On the other hand small amounts of alcohol have been found to have beneficial effects for seniors. A 2009 report from Healthday said healthy seniors who drink in moderation are less likely to suffer many of the disabilities that can lead to them losing their independence. Alcohol also improves the blood lipid profile, decreases

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the risk of thrombosis (blood clotting), increases appetite, and improves digestion. Light and moderate drinkers in their seventies might be keeping their blood vessels healthier than their nondrinking peers. Another study, released in 2009 at the International Conference on Alzheimer’s Disease in Vienna, Austria, is a fascinating example of the fine line between alcohol’s potential benefits and detriments. It involved 3,069 individuals over age 75—some nondrinkers; some moderate drinkers (8 to 14 drinks per week), and others classified as heavy drinkers (more than 14 drinks per week). All types of alcohol were included in the study, the results of which included the following: 䡲

For moderate drinkers, research calculated an average 37 percent reduction in risk of developing dementia. For heavy drinkers, there was more than double the risk of developing dementia than the nondrinkers. For participants who began the study with some form of cognitive impairment, any alcohol consumption during the study period resulted in a faster rate of cognitive decline.

Alcohol and Stress. The ability to cope with traumatic events varies among human beings, and recent research indicates a strong association between alcohol abuse and chronic stress or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The latter is an anxiety disorder developed after a terrifying event or ordeal. The risk factors that predict stress-related alcohol problems should not come as a surprise to anyone. Some people turn to alcohol as a coping mechanism when they feel their situations are severe or unavoidable, when they lack social support or other resources to help them cope, or when they feel helpless or hopeless. Alcohol and Cancer. There is good news and bad news regarding alcohol and cancer. Medical research indicates increased levels of liver, esophagus, breast, and mouthrelated cancers in heavy drinkers. At Canada’s McGill University, researchers also found lung, stomach, pancreas and even prostate cancer correlations in a 2009 study. Again, these were considered “heavy” drinkers of beer and spirits—the McGill results did not apply to occasional drinkers, nor to those who drank wine. Other research has shown moderate drinkers have less likelihood of developing polyps in their bowels, which are a precursor to colon cancer. Since colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer in the United States, this is significant. And, there is ongoing research addressing other possible antioxidant benefits regarding moderate alcohol consumption in a number of other cancers. That means it is part of your duty as a purveyor of alcoholic beverages to keep abreast of the news and any new findings on health and alcohol. A study on peptic ulcers is a good way to summarize this section of the text. The research found that moderate drinking—one beer or glass of wine a day—curbed the formation of bacteria that are thought to cause ulcers in the stomach. Drinking twice that much, however, or consuming distilled spirits, actually increased the risk of getting an ulcer. The message? Moderation, moderation, moderation. If you require further evidence, read on.

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ALCOHOL AND NUTRITION The main nutrients in alcohol are ethanol, simple carbohydrates, glucose, and fructose. Alcohol plays three main roles in human nutrition: as food, as an aid to the absorption of minerals, and as an appetite stimulant. As food, it is generally agreed that drinking alcohol is ingesting “empty” calories. Because alcohol is not full of vitamins and contains sugars, it is not especially good for you, but in moderation it’s not particularly harmful either. In the stomach the alcohol in a glass of wine has the side benefits of helping to digest food and enhance absorption of other nutrients from the food, particularly calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorous, and zinc. Wine also contains about 25 calories per ounce, however, and since it stimulates appetite, it can prompt a person to eat more. Compare the calorie counts in Figure 2.3 to see how your favorites stack up. Of course, Americans no longer need a stout mug of ale at lunch to give them the high-calorie boost that provided our colonial ancestors with the energy to do an afternoon of backbreaking work. So many modern-day nutrition experts contend that alcohol should be counted in the diet as fat instead of calories because of the metabolic interaction that occurs between fat and alcohol in the body. For example, when presented with both fat and alcohol, the body does the logical thing: It uses the alcohol first to rid itself of the toxic substance, then stores the fat. This means that drinking might actually promote fat storage in the body, particularly in the central abdominal cavity. Thus, there is a medical explanation for that beer

CALORIE COUNTS OF COMMON BEVERAGES AND MIXERS Beverage Beer ‘‘Light’’ beer Gin, rum, vodka, whiskey (86 proof) Dessert wine Table wine Tonic, ginger ale Cola, root beer Fruit-flavored soda, Tom Collins mix Club soda, plain seltzer, diet drinks

Amount (ounces) 12 12 11/2 31/2 31/2 8 8 8 8

Energy (calories) 150 100 105 140 85 80 100 115 1

FIGURE 2.3 Source: Nutrition Concepts and Controversies, 8th Edition, Frances Sizer and Eleanor Noss Whitney, 1997, Wadsworth Publishing, New York.

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belly, which is noticeable even in many moderate drinkers. One of the most common conditions associated with alcoholism is even called fatty liver, a build-up of fat cells retained by the liver that enlarges and damages it, even with no symptoms. Recent studies have also shown that alcohol consumption slows down the body’s overall fuel (fat) consumption by as much as one third, causing more fat to be stored. Thus, alcoholic beverages are fattening in two ways: They add at least seven calories per gram as you drink, and they affect your body’s ability to metabolize fat. Another more far-reaching side effect of drinking too much is malnutrition. The more alcohol a person drinks, the less likely he or she will be able to eat enough food to obtain adequate nutrients. When a body fills up with “empty” alcohol calories and volume, and so does not feel hunger, the alcohol is displacing food. Alcohol also directly interferes with the body’s ability to use nutrients, making them count for less even if a person does manage to eat regular meals. The most dramatic impact is on folate, a vitamin that the body requires to make new cells. An excess of alcohol prompts the body to excrete folate. It dumps into the bloodstream, into the kidneys, and into other places it’s not supposed to go. The result is a dangerous downward spiral: The more you drink, the more nutrient deficiencies your body will experience.

Anatomy of the Hangover. A grim reality of drinking comes as the result of overindulging. It is that awful combination of headache, nausea, stomach cramps, dehydration, and dizziness known as the hangover. A hangover indicates a chemical imbalance and a milder form of drug withdrawal. Congeners (from the verb congeal, meaning to thicken or solidify) are compounds found in alcoholic beverages that contribute to the hangover. Different types of alcohol (vodka, gin, Scotch) have different congeners, and the more added flavoring and coloring in a beverage, the higher its congener content. Lost workforce productivity because of hangovers costs U.S. companies an amazing $150 billion a year, so scientists are studying hangovers and how to cure them, and they’ve made some interesting findings about exactly what happens in the body when it’s bombarded by alcohol: 䡲

A byproduct of the overburdened liver, working hard to metabolize the alcohol, is a chemical called acetaldehyde, a probable carcinogen that can damage cell DNA. Some of it gets into the bloodstream, prompting inflammation. The stomach also gets into the action, secreting extra acid and histamines, which also cause inflammation. The acetaldehyde, along with the congeners, appears to stimulate the body’s immune response, much as if it were fighting the flu or an infection. This triggers the release (by the white blood cells) of molecules called cytokines. These tiny culprits produce the flu-like feelings that come from drinking too much.

Laboratory research is now focused on how to prevent the release of the cytokines in the first place. Dehydration is, perhaps, the most serious of the hangover’s side effects. Alcohol depresses the body’s production of anti-diuretic hormones and prompts greater urine output. With the “outgo,” minerals like the B vitamin folate are lost that are vital to nerve function and muscle coordination. Intense thirst after drinking is a signal that your body needs water and, as you rehydrate, the common side effects are headache and nerve pain as the brain cells swell back to their normal size.

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When imbibing, it is always smart to drink, at the least, twice the amount of water as alcohol to counterbalance alcohol’s diuretic effects, and also to simply slow down your alcohol intake. For these reasons, servers should be taught to offer water frequently and refill the glasses regularly. For about a day after drinking too much, there are plenty of physiological reasons to feel awful. The heart works harder and beats faster. Blood pressure increases, brain-cell activity is suppressed, and the body has a more difficult time metabolizing glucose. Folk remedies for hangovers abound: aspirin, vitamins, exercise, or eating specific types of food (for example, bread or pasta, or the traditional Mexican tripe soup called menudo). Unfortunately, they are all virtually useless, and although the scientists are hard at work on it, there is no miracle cure. A couple of over-the-counter dietary supplements that claim to prevent the body’s build-up of acetaldehyde are controversial and, as of this writing, lack U.S. government testing and approval. All you can do for a hangover—besides vowing never to drink that much again— is to give the body time and rest to process the excess alcohol intake and to replace the water you have lost.

ALCOHOLISM AND OTHER DRINKING PROBLEMS It is estimated that more than 17 million adult Americans have alcohol abuse problems, and 1 in 13 Americans is an alcoholic. According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), the four symptoms that signal the disease are: 1. A craving for the alcohol: A strong need or urge to drink. 2. A lack of control: Not being able to stop drinking once the person has begun. 3. Physical dependence: Withdrawal symptoms (shakiness, sweating, nausea, anxiety) when the person stops drinking. 4. Increased tolerance: The need to drink greater amounts of alcohol to feel its effects. Alcoholics often drink as a coping mechanism, to relieve tension or escape from problems, only to find that soon they cannot control their cravings. Their insistence on drinking—despite worsening health, financial or legal problems, and despite attempted intervention by loved ones—may be characterized by denial. The alcoholic may lie, make excuses, drink secretly, and hide alcohol. The physiology of alcoholism in the human body is not entirely clear. It is not known precisely why one person becomes a compulsive drinker and another does not. Researchers use three different theories to explain this destructive behavior: 䡲

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The genetic theory defines alcoholism as the result of a predisposed reaction to alcohol because of chromosomes, genes, or hormonal deficiencies. It is medically and scientifically accepted that a low-threshold response to alcohol is genetic; so is a person’s ability to drink a lot without showing the apparent effects and, in fact, the latter is a strong indicator of a genetic risk for alcoholism. In addition, children

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of alcoholics are four times more likely than the general population to develop alcohol-related problems. Other risk factors within families include whether the parents abuse other drugs, the severity of their alcohol abuse, and whether the abuse led to aggression or family violence. The psychological theory defines alcoholism as a condition in people who have a preset disposition or personality that triggers a reaction to alcohol. The sociological theory defines alcoholism as a learned response, that is, that addiction happens as a result of the influences of society. This theory, as well as the genetic theory, may also apply to ethnic patterns of alcoholism, such as why problem drinking is prevalent on Native American reservations.

Of course, not all people who grow up in troubled families where alcohol abuse has been present grow up to be alcoholics. Of all three theories, only one point is certain: Alcoholism is a type of addiction and the afflicted cannot be cured without some form of treatment. Over time, alcoholism causes damage to the entire body, especially the liver, the heart, the digestive system, the central nervous system, and the brain. The disease also causes psychological damage, in the form of depression, low self-esteem, loss of concentration, insomnia, irritability, and violent behavior, among others. Alcoholics who do not seek help for their problem can shorten their lives by 10 to 15 years. More frightening is that many alcoholics also shorten the lives of others: 40 percent of all traffic fatalities occur in alcohol-related accidents. Moreover, alcohol-related crimes in this country account for 54 percent of murders and attempted murders, 52 percent of rapes and sexual assaults, and 48 percent of robberies. Consider this: A liver transplant that, in most cases, is needed because of excessive drinking, costs about $150,000. There are almost 17,000 Americans on a waiting list for a liver transplant, but there are not enough to go around. For instance, in 2005, there were about 6,500 liver transplants in the U.S. according to the American Liver Foundation. On the other hand, it costs about $5,000 to undergo treatment for alcohol abuse—and there are generally no long waiting lists—before the problem gets that far. At this writing, more than 50 studies are underway for drugs or plant-based substances that might treat alcoholism, as the potential market is enormous. Alcoholics can take medications that will blunt their cravings, ease withdrawal symptoms, and make them so sensitive to alcohol that they will avoid it rather than become ill. Still, there is no failsafe drug to “cure” alcoholism.

Binge Drinking. Another type of problem drinking, not classified as alcoholism but potentially just as serious, is binge drinking. For men, binge drinking is defined as the act of consuming five or more alcoholic beverages in a single, short time period, say, at a party or sporting event. For women, four or more drinks qualify as a binge. In a 2008 study of college students’ drinking habits, the NIAAA found that two of every five students reported binge drinking at least once in a two-week time period. It is estimated that about half of college students under 21 incur an unintentional, alcohol-related injury.

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The study also reveals an interesting side effect: it is estimated that more than 400,000 students between the ages of 18 and 24 had unprotected sex as a result of their drinking, and more than 100,000 students between the ages of 18 and 24 report having been too intoxicated to know if they consented to having sex each year. In the Journal of American College Health (May/June 2009 issue), researchers concluded after another study on three large college campuses: “Almost 30 percent of undergraduate women report experiencing an attempted or completed sexual assault either before or while in college; more than 11 percent of them while they were incapacitated or unable to provide consent.” One campus group, Men Against Violence at University of North Texas in Denton, Texas, used this chilling slogan in its public awareness materials: “The Number One weapon used in campus rapes is alcohol.” Clearly, binge drinking is a major concern on college campuses and among young adults. A new twist on binge drinking is drunkorexia—not an official medical term, but the slang for a disturbing behavior combination of self-imposed starvation (anorexia or bulimia) and alcohol abuse, often seen in young women trying obsessively to lose weight and/or remain thin. Doctors who report seeing this problem say the women try to eat less, or to purge what they eat by vomiting, in order to offset the calories in the alcohol they consume. Some bars, and even colleges, have begun to distribute products that test drinks for the presence of so-called “date rape drugs,” such as GHO or ketamine, colorless and odorless sedatives that impair judgment and induce sleep. There are now cocktail coasters treated so they will change color when wet with only a few drops of a mixed drink, as well as strips that can be placed into beverages to detect the presence of a drug. The newest do-it-yourself product is a similar type of strip that can be placed on the tongue; it changes color depending on how much a person has had to drink. These might be just intriguing enough to young drinkers for a bar to offer them regularly as an inducement to monitor alcohol intake.

HOW CAN YOU TELL IF SOMEONE HAS A DRINKING PROBLEM? The NIAAA suggests asking the following four questions of yourself or the person you care about: 䡲

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Have you ever felt you should cut down on your drinking?

Have people annoyed you by criticizing your drinking?

Have you ever felt bad or guilty about your drinking?

Have you ever had a drink first thing in the morning, to steady your nerves or to get rid of a hangover?

One “yes” answer suggests a possible alcohol problem. More than one “yes” answer means it is highly likely that a problem exists. However, you should see a doctor or health-care provider, who can help you determine if a drinking problem does exist, and plan the best course of action.

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As a seller and server of alcoholic beverages, you must learn to be especially vigilant about the signs of problem drinking. Later in this chapter we will discuss more fully how to identify problem drinkers, as well as how to handle them when they are your customers.

LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS The surge of third-party litigation, the raising of the drinking age to 21, the placement of warning labels on liquor bottles, and the pressure to control media advertising of alcoholic beverages are all part of an ongoing national movement against alcohol abuse. Such efforts are dubbed by some as neoprohibition, a throwback to the disastrous nineteenth-century movement described in Chapter 1. Those who are involved in today’s movement, however, speak of it as neotemperance, aimed against the abuse of alcohol, not consumption of alcohol entirely. The bar and beverage industry has seen its products and practices debated on national television talk shows, in newspapers, even in the halls of Congress. A number of related issues, including religious restrictions, health considerations, and alcoholism, tend to polarize people and create a turbulent climate for the industry. While most Americans do not support efforts to limit public access to alcohol, certain extremely vocal anti-alcohol groups are using the problem of drunken driving as a political agenda to push for stricter controls on alcohol sales and service. Manufacturers and sellers of alcohol, who sometimes feel they are cast in the role of “the bad guys,” worry that the concerns of both the public and the private sectors will adversely affect their profits long term. Government at all levels tends to raise the tax on alcoholicbeverage sales whenever money is needed, referring to it (not entirely in jest) as a “sin tax.” On the other hand, the industry is also very much concerned about alcohol abuse. A number of industry organizations are developing ways to fight abuse through education, server-awareness programs, and new products suitable to a new market. If you are going to be working in this facet of the hospitality industry, you must become familiar with the specific laws that affect your job. That is the purpose of this section: to introduce and explain laws that directly affect the bar and beverage industry. Like any other laws, those that apply to the sale and service of alcohol are impacted by the social and political climate and can change accordingly. So it is important to stay up to date. The laws fall into four categories: 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲

Dramshop and third-party liability laws Blood-alcohol-content or blood-alcohol-concentration (BAC) laws Drunken-driving laws Drinking-age laws

First, we will define and discuss each type of law, then we’ll talk about ways that the food and hospitality industries are creating and promoting responsible alcoholconsumption policies. No single federal agency or department establishes all of the rules and standards regarding the sale, service, or use or alcohol—nothing to compare, for instance, to

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the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, which sets safety and sanitation standards for foods and medicines. Consequently, alcohol-related laws may vary drastically from state to state, and even between counties or voting precincts in “wet-dry” areas, and they might be enforced by a police or sheriff’s department, a department of transportation, an alcoholic beverage commission, or another agency. This is one more reason that the first rule of responsible alcoholic-beverage service is to know your own state and local regulations.

Dramshop Laws and Third-Party Liability In recent years, attorneys have successfully argued that bars, as well as restaurants that serve alcoholic beverages, should be held at least partially responsible for how the beverages affect their guests. Such laws are generally known as dramshop laws (from dram, originally meaning a small drink of liquor, plus shop, the place where it is sold). The thrust of these laws is: the liability for damages in a drunk driving accident, for instance, should be shared by the driver who caused it and the server or alcoholic-beverage licensee who provided the intoxicating drinks. This concept is known as third-party liability. The earliest dramshop laws were enacted in nineteenth-century England, to protect families of so-called habitual drunkards. The laws penalized tavern owners if they continued to serve a patron after being notified of his or her drunkenness by his or her spouse, children, or employees. Starting in the mid-1980s, successful lawsuits resulted in millions of dollars in damages being awarded to victims of drunk drivers who had been served liquor by a third party. Furthermore, even when a state does not have a specific dramshop law on the books, courts in more than 20 states have chosen to recognize these third-party-liability lawsuits as legitimate “common law” causes of action. Part of the reasoning is that since the business profits from the sale of alcohol, it should be held accountable for the “social costs” of liquor sales as well. Whether or not bar or restaurant owners agree they should be held responsible for their customers’ drinking, the fact is that today society is doing so. It is also generally agreed that without this threat, licensees and servers would be less likely to establish service standards to prevent customers from becoming intoxicated, or to train employees to recognize problems. Other types of legal liability related to the dramshop laws apply to alcoholic-beverage service. Criminal liability lets the state file a lawsuit against a licensed business, individuals employed by the business, or the social host of a private party where alcohol is served. Unlike a civil suit, the criminal suit addresses the criminal aspects of serving alcohol irresponsibly. For example, when an intoxicated guest at a bar injures an innocent bystander (either inside the bar or after leaving the premises), the state sues both the guest and those who served the guest alcohol. A civil suit usually includes a financial penalty; a criminal suit can mean jail time. Sometimes both civil and criminal suits are filed simultaneously in separate courts, and the outcome of the criminal suit is not dependent on the outcome of the civil action. Both cases are decided independently, which means that the defendant can be held accountable by both courts, or in one and not the other.

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Administrative liability applies to any liquor-license holder in a certain state. Liquor licenses are granted by state liquor-control agencies (you will learn much more about them in Chapter 16). If regulations are broken, the state can mete out stiff penalties, including fines, license suspensions, and license revocations. These penalties can cause financial harm or ruin to a bar or restaurant business. In many court cases alcoholic-beverage servers have been held responsible for foreseeability—that is, the reasonable anticipation that a particular course of action will likely result in harm or injury. Furthermore, the most prosperous defendant in a third-party-liability suit (often the bar or restaurant owner) can be forced to pay most (or all) of the damage costs, especially if the codefendants are unable to pay. Some attorneys choose to sue only the wealthiest of the potential defendants, even if that party is not solely or even primarily responsible for what happened. The term reasonable care is used to describe the degree of diligence or the standards of precaution that are expected in a particular set of circumstances. Reasonable care includes, but is not limited to, what an ordinary, prudent person would do to prevent harm or injury. The flip side of reasonable care is negligence, which means that the failure to act (that is, the failure to exercise reasonable care) resulted in harm or injury to someone. In other words, a bar or restaurant has a basic duty to prevent any action that would cause injury or permit injury to occur as a result of the way it serves beverages on its premises. What does this mean to your serving staff? All employees should be aware they can be held personally liable for serving alcohol to a minor or to an already intoxicated guest; they can be held personally liable if an intoxicated guest gets behind the wheel of a vehicle. Conversely, people have also sued bars or restaurants that refused to seat them or serve them, citing embarrassment and emotional distress. Fortunately, when businesses explain they had good reason to believe these persons were already intoxicated, they have been found not liable on the grounds that they would have been negligent to serve the already intoxicated people, then let them drive away from the premises. With the advent of these lawsuits the third-party-liability issue caused a major crisis for insurance companies that offer coverage to the beverage-service industry. Insurance rates skyrocketed beyond the reach of many bar and restaurant owners, and many insurers refused to sell liability insurance to enterprises that served liquor on-premise. For a time in the mid-1980s, the situation threatened the entire beverage industry. Luckily, that is no longer the case. As long as a bar’s business plan and financial backing are solid, it can obtain insurance as easily as any other type of business.

Blood Alcohol Content (BAC) Laws You are considered legally intoxicated when your blood alcohol content is higher than what the law permits in your area. The legal level of intoxication varied from state to state, and it was in a fevered flux after Congress mandated in 1999 that states adhere to a .08 BAC standard by the year 2004, or they would no longer receive millions of dollars in federal highway-improvement money. An interesting scramble resulted:

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In 2001, 25 states had BAC levels of .08, 24 states had BAC levels of .10, and only Massachusetts had not set a BAC per se level. By December 2003 only 14 states still had BAC levels of .10, and Massachusetts decided on a .08 level, along with 36 other states. By May 2004 only Delaware had not approved a .08 BAC; Minnesota enacted its .08 BAC law with an effective date of August 2005. On August 1, 2005, Minnesota adopted its .08 BAC law, making .08 the standard in all states.

So, federal money talks. But what exactly does it say? The BAC figure is a percentage of the amount of alcohol in your bloodstream. For example, at a .10 BAC level, you have one drop of alcohol in every 100 drops of blood. That may not sound like much, but remember how potent alcohol is and how long it takes your system to process and eliminate it. At a BAC level of .30, you could lapse into a coma; at a BAC level of .40, you risk death. The debate in the United States over changing the BAC level from .10 to .08 was heated, and was centered on the amount of alcohol absorbed by the body. The beverage industry, with science on its side, pointed to the differences between potencies of beer, wine, and spirits, as well as to the fact that each individual has a different build, a different amount of fat, a different metabolic rate, and a different amount of food in his or her stomach at the time of a BAC test. Gender, age, weight, overall health, mental state, and whether a person is taking medication—all affect the way the body processes alcohol. This makes it difficult, if not impossible, to draw absolute conclusions about minimum BAC standards and, hence, to legislate them. Since all states have now adopted the more stringent .08 BAC level (and there are many that have a Zero Tolerance policy for those under the age of 21), public reaction has been mixed. Many people simply are determined to spare themselves the embarrassment of blowing into a breath-test machine or standing in a police lineup, and so have decided to drink less and/or not drive if they do choose to imbibe. Others view it as a mixed blessing but one that causes everyone to behave more responsibly. Still others see it as the continuing effort of neoprohibitionists to slowly but surely legislate morality by forbidding consumption of alcoholic beverages. There have been suggestions to lower BAC standards to .05 or even .02, levels at which it would be impossible for most people to have even one drink and then drive without violating the law. There has also been talk of in-car breathalyzers that would be built in to each and every American-made car. You have to “blow” to go—if your BAC is higher than .08, your car simply doesn’t start. In spite of the controversy about lowering the BAC standard to .08, it might seem discouraging to its proponents that the results have not been as promising as they had hoped. In a Government Accounting Office study published in the September 1999 issue of Restaurants USA (the magazine of the National Restaurant Association), lowering the BAC level had not actually resulted in fewer alcohol-related fatalities. The study found that tougher alcohol law enforcement, drivers-license revocation, and Zero Tolerance policies for minors who consume alcoholic beverages all have been more effective methods of reducing the number and severity of alcohol-related driving accidents.

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And, in a 2002 study conducted by the Traffic Injury Research Foundation looking at further reducing the BAC limit to .05 in Canada, the researchers concluded that “a reduction in the legal BAC limit, in and of itself, would not be expected to have a substantial impact on the prevalence of impaired driving or alcohol-related crashes.”

Drunken-Driving Laws The first drunken-driving arrest was reportedly made in 1897, when a taxi driver in London, England, was fined 25 shillings for crashing his car into a building. In 1910, the United States’ first drunken-driving law was passed in New York. Perhaps ironically, it prohibited “driving while intoxicated” without specifying what qualified as “intoxicated.” And the first breath test device, called the “Drunkometer,” was patented in 1936. Despite society’s growing awareness that alcohol and vehicles didn’t mix, even as recently as the 1960s and 1970s, people who were convicted of drunken driving were fined between $10 and $50 and admonished by a judge. The defendant would solemnly promise not to drive drunk again, pay the fine, and walk away, with car keys in hand. If the person had been unlucky enough to cause an accident resulting in serious injuries or even deaths, a fine of a few hundred dollars and a suspended sentence was regarded as sufficient for this “basically law-abiding citizen.” Today, Americans are far less tolerant of people who drive drunk. Activist groups, such as Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD), Students Against Driving Drunk (SADD), and Remove Intoxicated Drivers (RID), have spearheaded powerful national campaigns for stringent new legislation. Their efforts have forever changed the arrest, recording of charges, and penalties for an offense now commonly known as driving while intoxicated (DWI) or driving under the influence (DUI). The national reaction to drunken driving has resulted in the implementation of several different types of per se laws. Under a per se (Latin for by itself) law, a single piece of evidence—a breath test administered to a driver, a roadside sobriety test (e.g., walking in a straight line, standing on one leg), or the refusal of a driver to take such a test—is automatically presumed to indicate guilt, without regard to other possible circumstances. (See the interview with attorney Christopher Hooper of Texas for a defense lawyer’s interesting viewpoint on these issues and the civil rights questions they raise.) The per se laws include: 䡲

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Administrative license-suspension laws, which empower an arresting officer to immediately revoke the driver’s license of a person who refuses to take, or fails to pass, an alcohol breath test (in effect in 41 states and the District of Columbia). These are termed administrative because they are invoked on-site at the time of the arrest and are not part of a criminal procedure. Open-container laws, which prohibit drivers and/or passengers to have open containers of alcohol in vehicles (in effect in 43 states and the District of Columbia). Vehicle-forfeiture laws that allow multiple offenders’ vehicles to be impounded if the offenders are caught driving under the influence again (in effect in 32 states).

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These are among the most controversial laws since the drivers may not own their vehicles outright; they might be leasing them, or a bank or finance company might technically own the vehicles while they are being paid for. Ignition-interlock laws that require accused drunk drivers to install devices in their vehicles into which they must blow (proving that they are sober) in order to start the ignition and/or keep the vehicle running (in effect in 47 states)—even when they are awaiting court dates and have not been convicted.

The fines and penalties for drunken driving are being raised, too (see Figure 2.4, which lists just a few of them). Most states revoke drivers’ licenses for three months for a first offense and one to two years for second convictions. Most states now mandate jail sentences for a first offense and nearly all for repeat drunk-driving offenses. Insurance companies also now penalize drunken drivers. Since 1984 in New York, for example, all insured drivers convicted of DUI can have their automobile-insurance coverage canceled, or, at least, they run the risk of it not being renewed by their carrier. This forces the individual to seek coverage by the state’s “assigned-risk plan,” with insurance rates up to at least 75 percent higher than typical premiums. Most drunken-driving legislation is passed and administered at the state and local levels. This is not to say that Congress has not gotten involved, however. In 1981, it voted to withhold federal highway funds from states that had not raised their legal drinking age from 18 to 21 by 1986. In 1999, as you already learned, the same strategy was used to force states to lower the per se BAC level from .10 to .08 for motorists. Congress also has established a grant program that awards federal money for implementing safe-driving programs and aggressively enforcing drunken driving laws. In 2004, for example, $22 million was paid to states for enforcing “Alcohol-Impaired Driving Countermeasures.” These include: 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲

License-suspension programs. Underage-drinking programs. Sobriety checkpoints or other “similar intensive-enforcement” programs. A graduated licensing law with nighttime-driving curfews and other restrictions. Programs for drinking drivers ages 21 to 34. Programs to increase testing of drivers in fatal crashes. The states might qualify for additional money if they enact “supplemental” programs, such as police videotaping drivers stopped for violations or using passive alcohol sensors.

Others, who say alcohol-related laws have become too stringent to the point of violating drivers’ rights, suggest the need for better seat-belt-law enforcement instead. In the late 1990s, when the controversy about changing the BAC standard for drivers from .10 to .08 was raging, it was estimated that the measure would save about 600 lives per year. The National Transportation Safety Board estimated that there would be about 10,000 fewer deaths per year if everyone wore seat belts. It is ironic, then, that $11 million was paid to states to enforce “Occupant Protection” (seat-belt) programs in 2004—only half what was spent on drunk driving. In the future, we can expect more penalties to be suggested by consumer activists and passed by lawmakers. Unfortunately, no matter what the laws, fines, penalties,

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DUI/DWI LAWS April 2010 All 50 states and the District of Columbia have per se laws defining it as a crime to drive with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) at or above a proscribed level, currently 0.08 percent (0.08 g alcohol per 100 ml blood). License suspension or revocation traditionally follows conviction for alcohol-impaired driving. Under a procedure called administrative license suspension, licenses are taken before conviction when a driver fails or refuses to take a chemical test. Because administrative license suspension laws are independent of criminal procedures and are invoked right after arrest, they’ve been found to be more effective than traditional post-conviction sanctions. Administrative license suspension laws are in place in 41 states and the District of Columbia. More than half of all U.S. states require DUI offenders to install ignition interlocks on their vehicles in order to drive during a license suspension and/or require interlocks for specified time periods before fully relicensing offenders. These interlock devices analyze a driver’s breath and disable the ignition if the driver has been drinking. In 13 states (Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Hawaii, Illinois, Louisiana, Nebraska, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Utah, and Washington), such a restriction is applied to all offenders, including first time offenders. California applies a similar restriction to all offenders, but only in 4 counties. An additional 9 states apply the restriction to all offenders with high BACs (usually 0.15 percent or higher) and to repeat offenders, and 6 states apply the restriction only to repeat offenders. Laws in the remaining states do not require interlocks at all, though courts or DMVs in 18 states and the District of Columbia have the discretion to apply interlock requirements. Only 3 states (Alabama, South Dakota, and Vermont) have no interlock laws.

State

Administrative license suspension 1st offense?

Restore driving privileges during suspension?

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California

90 days 90 days 90 days 6 months 4 months

no after 30 days1 after 30 days1 yes1 after 30 days1

Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana

3 months 90 days 3 months 2–90 days

yes1 yes1 no yes1

no state interlock laws all offenders all offenders all offenders all offenders (in 4 counties)2 (effective 07/01/10) all offenders no no no

6 months 1 year 3 months 90 days 3 months 180 days

after 30 days1 yes1 after 30 days1 after 30 days1 after 30 days1 after 30 days1

high-BAC offenders only no all offenders (effective 01/01/11) no all offenders no

FIGURE 2.4

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Are ignition interlocks mandatory under state law for the following offenses? First offenders

Repeat offenders yes yes yes no yes no no no yes no yes no yes no

Source: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, Highway Loss Data Institute, DUI.Drivinglaws.org.

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Administrative license suspension 1st offense?

Restore driving privileges during suspension?

Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin

180 days 30 days no 90 days 90 days 45 days 90 days no 90 days 90 days 30 days no 90 days 90 days 6 months

Wyoming

State

Are ignition interlocks mandatory under state law for the following offenses? First offenders

Repeat offenders

after 90 days1 no not applicable after 30 days1 yes1 yes1 no not applicable after 15 days1 no no not applicable after 30 days1 after 45 days1 no

no high-BAC offenders only no all offenders no no no no no no no no all offenders no high-BAC offenders only

no yes no yes no no yes no no no yes yes yes no yes

no 90 days variable3 30 days 91 days 90 days 180 days 90 days no no no no no 90 days 120 days 90 days 7 days 90 days 6 months 6 months

not applicable after 30 days1 yes1 after 10 days1 after 30 days1 after 15 days1 yes1 after 30 days1 not applicable not applicable not applicable not applicable not applicable yes1 no no no yes1 after 30 days1 yes1

yes yes yes yes no no yes yes no no yes

90 days

yes1

high-BAC offenders only all offenders all offenders (effective 08/18/10) high-BAC offenders only no no no all offenders no no no no state interlock laws no no all offenders no state interlock laws high-BAC offenders only all offenders high-BAC offenders only high-BAC offenders only (effective 07/01/10) high-BAC offenders only

no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes

1

Drivers usually must demonstrate special hardship to justify restoring privileges during suspension, and then privileges often are restricted. 2

First offender pilot program in 4 counties—Alameda, Los Angeles, Sacramento, and Tulare.

3

In New York, administrative license suspension lasts until prosecution is complete.

FIGURE 2.4 (Continued)

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or educational programs, approximately 10 percent of all drivers will continue to be problem drinkers, regardless of the cost to themselves and others. That makes it all the more important for everyone else to refuse to accept drunkenness, to learn how to recognize drunks in other vehicles and react defensively, and most of all, to drink responsibly themselves.

Drinking-Age Laws The Twenty-sixth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the so-called “Age of Majority” amendment, endows Americans who reach age 18 with nearly all the rights and privileges of adulthood. Eighteen-year-olds can vote, sign contracts, marry without their parents’ consent, ignore curfews, and buy tickets to X-rated movies. However, society has determined that it will be three more years before these new “adults” are responsible enough to have a drink that contains alcohol. This reasoning stems at least in part from the controversial contention that many in this segment of the population will end up as highway fatalities if allowed to drink. Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death in the 16-to-20-year age group; about 23 percent of them involve underage drivers and alcohol. Beverage-industry groups have countered with statistics that show that, while 16-year-old drivers have far higher rates of traffic violations and fatalities than the rest of the population, those rates decrease dramatically once the young drivers reach age 18. In the 1990s, the beverage industry lobbied to raise the driving age to either 18 or 21. This did not go over well with busy parents, but it caught the attention of lawmakers, who proposed a different and more stringent standard for teens caught drinking and driving. Today, most states have Zero Tolerance laws for persons under age 21, with lower BAC levels (.01 or .02) than for adults, high fines, license suspension and more. (For most teens, a .02 blood alcohol concentration can be achieved with a single drink.) The theory behind Zero Tolerance laws is, that since it is illegal for persons underage to drink in the first place, it should also be illegal for them to drive with any alcohol in their system. A diverse group of experts, sociologists, psychologists, and beverage-industry representatives have suggested that parents of the underage drinker be the primary influences and rule makers, not the government. However, underage drinkers account for nearly 20 percent of the alcohol consumed in the United States each year, according to a 2005 study from the Journal of the American Medical Association. In 2009, the C.S. Mott Children’s Hospital National Poll on Children’s Health estimated about 20 percent of eighth graders and 40 percent of high school seniors drink alcohol. No matter what the numbers, the ongoing debate is a very personal one for anyone with children. Is it better for youngsters to learn about alcohol, and how to use it in a controlled way, in a family setting, or is it better for parents to demand that children abstain until they are of legal drinking age? Of course, teens who drink should not be allowed to drive, and families with a history of alcohol abuse should seriously consider the message they convey to their children each and every time they take a drink. If alcohol is treated with disregard as to its risks, the message will be the wrong one, no matter who delivers it first to a child.

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Some of the responsibility for underage drinking must surely rest with the beverage manufacturers. The wide variety of fizzy, fruit-flavored products they market to younger drinkers that, unintentionally but certainly, end up in the hands of minors are perceived as “one step up” from their favorite soft drinks. This beverage category, with alcohol content of between 5 and 8 percent, even has nicknames: alco-pops and malternatives. In the same National Poll on Children’s Health just cited, 75 percent of adults said they’re “concerned that underage drinking is a problem”; almost 60 percent support limiting alco-pop advertisements during televised sporting events and primetime television shows. More than 75 percent said they’d support banning the ads on billboards near schools and parks, and in magazines or on websites geared to young audiences. Some states are already enacting their own restrictions. To their credit, the manufacturers have also been progressive in creating communityrelations programs to inform minors and parents about alcohol abuse. One of the most aggressive and innovative companies in terms of corporate responsibility is beer manufacturer Anheuser-Busch. The makers of Budweiser beer have distributed almost 7 million copies of their parents’ guide Family Talk About Drinking (www .familytalkonline.com) free of charge—and in five languages—as well as maintaining a longtime speakers bureau. Among the program’s major points for parents: 䡲

Always set a good example by drinking responsibly. Parents are the single most important factor in their children’s decisions about alcohol. Talk openly with children about the law. Explain that it is illegal to purchase alcohol in any form, under the age of 21. Explain to them that the law is meant to protect people and that laws must be obeyed. Remind children that there are many other laws that also require people to be a certain age before they can do certain things. Tell them that the laws apply to all. It is not okay for adults to disobey them. Stick to the facts; avoid any scare tactics. Be truthful if you expect to continue to receive your children’s trust. Be approachable and involved. Answer any questions your children ask about alcohol.

In 2007, Anheuser-Busch added a MySpace page with much of the same information, called Positive Parenting Connection (www.myspace.com/positiveparenting). It also has programs aimed at adults who might be providing alcohol to minors, including Prevent. Don’t Provide and Operation I.D./We I.D. These can help retailers and educators, as well as parents and hospitality industry professionals. The benefits of helping children learn the facts about alcohol use, and abuse, not only assist in the fight against underage drinking, but also underscore the importance of personal responsibility in future generations of adult consumers.

SOLUTIONS FROM A CONCERNED INDUSTRY In light of social and legal developments, the food-and-hospitality industry has been at the forefront in the effort to promote responsible consumption of alcoholic beverages. The Anheuser-Busch programs are only a few of many examples. Also, the

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legal developments include more than stringent per se laws—they include widely publicized infractions and resulting court cases. For example: 䡲

In 2004, a company that provides horseback and hayrides in Wisconsin was sued for serving alcohol to minors at a party on its property, when no one checked identification before guests filled up their glasses from beer kegs. A car accident resulted in severe injuries for one of four teenagers after leaving the event. Although the business argued that the party was for adults, that the teens came uninvited (with the band), and that they had brought their own alcohol, it agreed to settle the case out of court for more than $1.6 million rather than undergo a prolonged court battle. In 2003, an Indiana jury ruled that the owners of an Outback Steakhouse pay $39 million when a man who had been drinking at the restaurant left in his car and struck two persons on a motorcycle. Also in 2003 a TGI Friday’s restaurant in Kentucky agreed to pay $21 million to the parents of two teenagers killed by a drunk driver who had been served there.

These are just some of the third-party liability cases prompting bars, hotels, and restaurants to rethink their responsible-service policies. Obviously, training both managers and employees is a key ingredient in the success of such a program. All staff members who come into contact with guests should be thoroughly trained in alcohol awareness, which is defined as the knowledge and skills to appropriately serve alcoholic beverages, monitor guest behavior, and deal decisively with any undesirable or illegal situations. Another common-sense training program, ServSafe Alcohol, has been developed by the National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation. Among the facts shared with workers in this program are: 䡲

If wine is served in an 8-ounce glass, the net result is twice as much alcohol as if served in a 4-ounce glass and should be counted as two drinks instead of one. The use of oversized glasses is chic where wine aficionados dine, but try to limit each serving to four or five ounces. Since the liver can metabolize only approximately one drink per hour, consuming more than that naturally increases the amount of alcohol absorbed into the bloodstream. Alcohol will buildup in the bloodstream and affect a person long after he or she has stopped drinking. A person’s BAC level can continue to rise even after he or she has stopped drinking and left your establishment. The guest might appear to be acting normally, but the full impact of the alcohol might not be felt until he or she is driving home. Knowing this, a bar should never serve doubles, drinks containing twice the normal amount of alcohol, or drinks containing two or more spirits (e.g., Martinis, Manhattans, Long Island Ice Teas) at “last call.”

Also extremely important in responsible beverage service is the practice of offering food when serving alcohol because food consumption slows the absorption of alcohol into the small intestine (see Figure 2.5). Also, guests who are relaxing and enjoying their food may not drink as much or as fast. The pace is slower when they are savoring the experience. As you monitor a guest’s reactions, observe the type and amount of alcohol that he or she is drinking, as well as the physical size of the

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FIGURE 2.5 Drinking an alcoholic beverage with food is a way to better savor both. Courtesy of PhotoDisc/Getty Images.

person, keeping in mind that women tend to become intoxicated more quickly than most men, even if they drink less.

High-Risk Factors It is also important to be aware of a number of factors that might predispose someone to be especially high-risk for the negative effects of consuming alcoholic beverages. For these people the usual BAC levels do not apply. It can be difficult to identify these individuals, although there are guidelines to follow, again from the ServSafe Alcohol program:

Stress or Depression. People who are feeling intensely stressed or depressed can show strong and sudden reactions when consuming alcoholic beverages. When the human body is under duress, it protects itself by coating the stomach to protect it from excess acid generated when the person is stressed, anxious, or depressed. Unfortunately, this protective lining can trap alcohol in the stomach and prevent it from moving on to the small intestine to be absorbed. Consequently as the person consumes alcohol, he or she does not readily feel the effects of it and might need to drink more to induce the anticipated relaxation. Eventually, the temporary stomach

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lining dissolves, and at that point the alcohol passes quickly into the intestines and bloodstream, causing a rapid rise in BAC level.

Diets and/or Fatigue. A guest who is dieting, purposely limiting his or her calorie intake, might not have eaten, or eaten much, for quite some time. This means that any alcoholic beverage consumed will be very quickly absorbed into the bloodstream. The same thing happens when an individual is tired. Fatigue also tends to affect overall judgment, thus compounding some of alcohol’s side effects.

Altitude. People who live and/or work in high-altitude communities, such as ski resorts, typically react more quickly to alcohol. It takes fewer drinks to become tipsy. This is a result of lower atmospheric pressure, and it affects the way that the human body absorbs alcohol. People accustomed to living closer to sea level but vacationing in a high-altitude location might find that each drink seems twice as potent. This means that staff working in bars and restaurants in these locations must be more alert to clientele who are unfamiliar with this effect on their drinking. Alcohol Tolerance. Have you ever known someone who seems to be able to drink a lot of alcohol without showing the typical signs of drunkenness? The human body and brain can build up a tolerance to alcohol. Long-term drinkers can sometimes consume large quantities without feeling or showing the effects. Conversely inexperienced drinkers might show symptoms before they are legally intoxicated because their bodies are unaccustomed to alcohol. It “hits” them harder and more quickly than it hits experienced drinkers. Bar staff need to be cognizant of these two extremes.

Medication. We’ve already discussed the dangers of mixing drugs and alcohol, whether they are over-the-counter, prescription, or illegal drugs. Drinking alcohol interferes with the body’s ability to process, or break down, many medications, so they build up instead of being distributed in the system, thereby magnifying the impact of both the drug and the alcohol on the body. Certain combinations, such as alcohol and tranquilizers, can even be fatal. If you are a server and know that a guest is taking medication, monitor that person carefully to observe any behavioral changes. Curtail service to that person sooner than usual, and do not allow the guest to drive away from the premises if you feel he or she might be unsafe.

Pregnancy. Pregnant women automatically qualify as high-risk guests. We have already discussed the tragedies of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) and fetal alcohol effects (FAE). Although there is no legal prohibition against serving alcohol to a pregnant woman, bar staff should be trained to watch for potential problems, and even to be able to discuss the consequences of consuming alcoholic beverages with the guest.

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Watching Behavior. You’ve read a lot so far about keeping an eye on guests, observing their behavior, and watching for signs of problems. But what exactly should you be looking for? Along with the obvious steps of counting the number of drinks that guests have ordered and monitoring how quickly they are finishing each drink, you can discern a great deal from most people’s behavior about how much alcohol they can safely consume. All of us have different ways of socializing that are part of our personalities. There is a difference between a guest who is loud and boisterous and one who becomes loud and boisterous after having a few drinks. As a server it’s important to notice the changes in a person’s natural style because experts tell us that a change in behavior is more revealing than the behavior itself. It is also essential for you to learn that certain disabilities or physical conditions might cause a person to stumble, slur speech, or have difficulty concentrating. These are not to be confused with drunkenness, and if you’re observant enough, you’ll learn the subtle differences. Common signs of intoxication include: 䡲

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Relaxed inhibitions: When alcohol first enters the brain, it relaxes a person’s normal sense of cautiousness and propriety. People say and do things they might not normally do or, at least, would think twice about. They might become very friendly or overly affectionate to employees or other guests, or they might become brooding or quiet. They might suddenly leave a group of friends and sit elsewhere, choosing to drink alone. They might annoy other guests by making loud and candid comments or by using foul language. Impaired judgment: Emotions and judgment are influenced by alcohol. Common sense doesn’t seem quite as important when you’ve had too much to drink. The most powerful example is, of course, a person’s refusal to hand over the car keys, insisting “I’m fine” and arguing with anyone who disagrees. Other signs of impaired judgment include drinking faster or switching to a stronger drink; showing extreme emotion, by becoming angry or tearful; making irrational claims or becoming argumentative; complaining about the last drink (after having had others that were of exactly the same type and strength); and being careless with money, which includes buying drinks for strangers or offering to buy “for the whole house.” Slow reaction time: People who drink too much might report later that they felt they were moving “in slow motion.” Indeed the more alcohol they consume, the slower their reaction and/or response times. They might exhibit a loss of concentration or memory, strain to finish sentences, not make sense, or slur their words. They also might be unable to focus their eyes or to maintain eye contact with others. They often look and act drowsy. Impaired physical condition: Alcohol consumption almost always impairs motor skills. This condition is known as ataxia, the inability to control voluntary muscle movements, which affects balance and coordination. People who experience ataxia spill drinks, stagger, stumble, sway or even doze off while seated, fall down or bump into things, and seem awkward when trying to retrieve change and bills left on the table or counter.

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AN OUNCE OF PREVENTION Suggestions and recommendations to enhance a Responsible Beverage Service program include:

For large parties or on such busy holidays as New Year’s Eve, consider hiring outside security.

“Advertise” your commitment to responsible alcohol service on the printed items used in your establishment: menus, coasters, table tents. Put up posters in your restrooms that mention alternate transportation modes that guests can use, as well as how to reach them.

Put pointers about responsible alcohol service on cards that your waitstaff can carry with them and refer to if necessary.

Focus at least part of training on employees’ attitudes toward customers. By smiling, making eye contact, and learning to chat a little instead of being strictly an order taker, the server is better able to size up the customer; the customer, in turn, feels more comfortable. It makes for a smoother situation if the server eventually has to deliver the “cut-off ” message.

Pay a private company to do the weekly alcohol inventory instead of relying on your staff or having to do it yourself. Reconciling the number of drinks served with the amount of liquor poured can help with portion control (i.e., pouring too generously), as well as theft prevention.

Teach the same observant friendliness to your door staffers and/or security staff members. If they approach a difficult customer with a calm voice and a handshake, for instance, they can diffuse the tension—even while the customer is being escorted out of the bar.

Forge relationships with a limousine company or towing service in case it is needed to get a guest (and in some cases, his or her vehicle) safely home.

Set advance limits for particular types of drinks, for example, no more than three Martinis per customer, ever.

MAKING A PLAN Now that you have some idea of what to look for when people overindulge in alcohol, you need to know the next step to take. It is management’s responsibility to create and implement a complete responsible alcoholic beverage service program that builds awareness throughout the organization. Some beginning steps for creating a written plan have been suggested by the National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Review any existing records your operation may have about this topic. Identify the special needs of your operation. Develop, review, and update written policies. Manage the staff to ensure a successful program. Promote the responsible service of alcoholic beverages.

Let’s consider these steps one at a time.

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Review Existing Records First, you should carefully examine the history of your establishment in incident reports or a current written policy, if available. Can a pattern be discerned from incidents, accidents, or related factors that contribute to problems? Then, talk to employees. Ask what they have noticed, and solicit their suggestions. Set up a meeting with your insurance carrier and your attorney. Ask for up-to-date information about third-party liability, and for their suggestions about good prevention programs. When you look at incidents that might have occurred, search for specifics: Exactly what happened and why? Was the bar or restaurant too crowded for adequate staff observation of all guests? Were the servers adequately prepared for this particular incident? Were written policies in effect at the time to guide the staff? If so, were they inadequate or did no one bother to refer to them? Did managers and/or employees communicate well or poorly? Did they communicate at all? With this detailed information you might be able to pinpoint a type of incident and even a frequency rate of occurrence. You also might be able to identify the types of guests who are typically involved in problem situations at your place of business. Were they, for example, minors who were upset about not being served? Were they intoxicated adults? Did verbal abuse and/or physical fighting make the situation worse? Was anyone armed with a weapon? Did the people involved in the fray drive away from the establishment? Next, look closely at how each incident was handled. Ask: Were certain servers involved in more problem situations than others? Did the servers use good judgment and practice the skills that they had learned in training? Were managers called when needed? If so, how did they react? Was it necessary to call police? Was an incident report filled out completely? If so, is a copy of it on file? Following the incident, was additional training held for staff members to teach prevention or public-relations skills? It is also important to realize that an incident doesn’t end when the guests who caused it leave your premises. Was it investigated by the local police or the alcoholic-beverage commission in your area? Did your business receive unfavorable publicity in the news media? Were customer counts and sales affected that evening, or on an ongoing basis? Did your insurance rates increase as a result of the incident? Did you lose employees because of it? The final aspect of this step is deciding what to do next. You need to assess the true readiness of your operation to handle a difficult customer, an armed customer, a suicidal customer, and a noisy and/or lewd customer who is annoying other patrons and who refuses to leave. In short, there are as many potential problems as there are customers. Ask your employees to help you think through any possible kind of difficult situation, from the minor hassles, to the real crises. Adapt your written policies to deal with all of them.

Identify Special Needs “Special needs” refers to the differences inherent in the various types of alcohol service. A bar or restaurant, for example, has very different needs from those of a sports stadium, a hotel, a casino, or a banquet/party facility. Once an audit or survey has been

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completed and you have pinpointed areas of your business that might require special rules or attention, consider these differences and decide how you must compensate for them. In bars, lounges, and restaurants, most guests come to enjoy the atmosphere and camaraderie as much as the beverages, but it is the alcohol that invites the scrutiny of law-enforcement agencies. Employees who interact with the customers should be polite and pleasant, not intimidating. One of their goals should be to encourage voluntary compliance with the laws, not to cause confrontations or be accusatory. When employees consistently exhibit a reasonable attitude and pleasant manner, they will gain the respect of all guests, as well as have an easier time dealing with troublesome ones. Employees who serve as door staffers or hostesses are a wise addition to many venues serving alcohol. These employees are the first to greet incoming guests and to notice potential incoming problems. They are also responsible for checking identification (ID); today there is plenty of good information from law-enforcement agencies about how to spot increasingly sophisticated fake IDs. These employees should follow a specific ID-checking policy to prevent, among other legal infringements, a single form of ID being passed to multiple underage persons as individuals leave and return. No one should be “immune” from being checked for proper identification, including entertainers, their friends, or even regular guests. Door staffers should also be able to deny entrance to anyone who appears to already be intoxicated, and even to ensure that the person who has been turned away does not get in a vehicle and drive off. Door employees can explain to the person that they will call the police if they see the person drive away, then they should be prepared to follow through with the threat. Servers should be both alert and pleasant: alert to the number of drinks consumed by each guest and continually mindful of signs of drunkenness. Having a manager walking around at all times as an additional, active observer is a necessity when a place is busy. A good manager can help servers communicate with each other, offer second opinions about questionable behavior, follow or divert suspicious guests, and generally alert employees to any potential trouble. If the facility is large and has partitioned areas, it’s a good idea to consider purchasing handheld walkie-talkies so that employees can easily contact a manager, security guard, or other employees. The manager should be able to forecast the volume of expected business, so that he or she can schedule sufficient numbers of servers for each time period. Being understaffed during busy times is an automatic invitation for trouble because both employees and guests suffer the frustration of long waits and inattentive service. Banquet facilities and private-event centers face unique challenges. Here are a few examples: the 20-year-old bride who insists that all her guests should have Champagne at her wedding reception; the 65-year-old retiree who insists on celebrating at his party past the point of good judgment; the business banquet spread across several different rooms at a large hotel, where guests and crashers can move about and order drinks in each room. A well-prepared manager will take preventive steps before each of these events is booked. The manager will explain all applicable laws to the host, orally and in writing, to make the host an ally of the facility, thus helping to ensure that guests will adhere to these laws. In this contract the specific policies that govern responsible

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alcoholic-beverage service will be spelled out, including a clause about the host’s responsibilities and liabilities. The rules will be explicit; for example: You will not serve minors or intoxicated individuals; you will slow the beverage service to guests who appear to have had too much. The host should be asked if he or she would like to be personally involved if a difficult situation arises during the event. Finally, the manager will ask the host to sign this agreement. If minors will be attending an event, be sure to have adequate supplies of nonalcoholic beverages. Consider using two different kinds of glasses, one for those underage and one for those over 21. Groups of college students are especially challenging because they might be of mixed age groups, making it difficult to tell who’s 21 and who isn’t. Some facilities that cater sorority or fraternity parties, for example, have simply made it their policy not to serve alcohol at these events. Nevertheless whenever alcohol is served, it’s not unusual for a drink to be passed from adult to minor, and it is almost impossible to count drink consumption when people are moving about. This is why it is essential that all staff members be vigilant and communicate at all times, especially during shift changes. Hotel and motel beverage directors have responsibilities similar to those of restaurant and bar managers. Hotel guests, however, might also choose to consume alcohol in their rooms, which generates an additional challenge. When you are developing service policies for a hotel, consider: 䡲

䡲 䡲

Whether to allow guests to take alcohol to their rooms, where staff members will not have control of the amount consumed. How alcoholic beverage service is requested. If it is in-room, how will your staff members know how many people will be drinking or if they are of legal drinking age? Minimum and maximum quantities to stock in minibars. Drinking to excess in the on-premise lounge or bar, assuming that the guest will be walking back to his or her room instead of driving.

And don’t forget that in hotels, housekeeping, security, and room-service employees must also be trained to note problems and to know whom to contact to report them when necessary.

Develop Written Policies We’ve already discussed that, for employee-training purposes, you should have basic, written rules and guidelines for dealing with customers. In this section, we explain why this is necessary for a broader purpose. In case there is an incident or accident on your premises or your establishment is named as a responsible party in a lawsuit, your attorney and insurance company will use these written documents to help you out of a potentially damaging and expensive situation. One of the first things you should decide is who will approach the overserved customer with the bad news that he or she is being cut off. Some businesses leave this specifically to the manager on duty; others feel that the person who has already established some rapport with the guest—the server or bartender, perhaps—is the

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most logical choice. Decide in advance rather than wait for an incident. Either way, telling the customer must be done tactfully and respectfully, and should be roleplayed extensively in training so that all employees are fully aware of the policy and how to enforce it. Some establishments require each employee to be able to recite the policy because, sooner or later, a guest will ask. After the training, each employee should sign and date a standard form stating that he or she understands and accepts the policies and procedures. Some businesses also require employees to pass a written test before they can join the serving staff. You should also require that a standard incident report form be filled out any time there is a problem. This includes when a server decides to stop serving alcoholic beverages to a guest. Why? You are covering yourself, your manager on duty, and your employee. What if this customer sobers up and calls his or her lawyer in the morning? What if the customer returns the next night, and the next, and starts harassing your waitstaff? You want a record of each incident. Your insurance company, attorney, and local law-enforcement agencies can offer advice for creating and launching your training-and-documentation program. They might also have informational materials and/or boilerplate forms available for you to use. Ask your advisors such questions as, “If a customer, intoxicated or not, is harassing one of my servers, what are my rights? What are the server’s rights? What is the best or safest way to ask such a customer to leave the premises?” It is to your benefit in more ways than one to take advantage of the expertise of these professionals. Many insurance companies, for example, have agreed to sell liability insurance at reduced rates to enterprises that have trained all or a large percentage of their serving personnel in an insurer-approved program. Certain smaller insurance companies have formed insurance pools to spread their risks and are now offering affordable liability-insurance rates. If you shop around you can get the coverage you need to protect yourself from third-party liability. Be aware that the rates are likely to be far higher than you wish they were, so get your money’s worth.

Manage the Staff Total staff commitment to your responsible service policies is essential to the success of their implementation, and this begins with the hiring process. In a prospective worker, look for the attitude and sense of responsibility necessary to enable someone to make a quick decision in a high-energy, high-pressure situation. Is this person, simply, a responsible and level-headed individual? Keeping in mind that in third-party-liability cases, an employer can be held responsible for employees who were not properly screened, screen each job candidate carefully for histories of violence, criminal acts, sexual harassment, and drug or alcohol abuse; also, examine the person’s work history and call past employers for references. (Think for a moment about the news stories you’ve read or heard about elementary-school employees, for example, who have been accused of sexual impropriety with children, and whose past records were not checked. You can easily see how serious problems may arise.)

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Develop a shift-change policy to ensure that incoming workers communicate with those who are ending their workdays. Also, as mentioned earlier, never understaff on days or evenings that are known to be busy periods. When enough servers are on the floor, each is better able to practice the essentials of customer service, which goes a long way toward preventing problems. New employees should never be serving customers without supervision. Empower more experienced employees to guide trainees through their first days on the job; give trainees feedback and praise for a job well done. Encourage staff to help one another during busy periods. Back up any staff member who is being harassed by a customer. If the customer is not intoxicated, you are completely within your rights to ask a troublesome customer to leave the premises, remembering that the way you do so will affect all involved, as well as your business. But remember that if he or she is intoxicated, you might have to provide a means of transportation to avoid potential third-party liability later should the customer get into an accident after leaving your establishment. You might want to consider implementing a salary structure that bases compensation on sales of combined food and beverage instead of only beverages, to motivate employees to further reduce the chances that customers will drink too much on their shifts. Teach staff how to use suggestive selling techniques, offering or recommending foods to customers who order drinks, or to upsell, which means suggesting drinks made with the more upscale, premium brands of liquor instead of well brands. Guests tend to consume the premium brands at a slower rate, presumably to enjoy the superior quality. You might want to give your waitstaff permission to offer small tastes of certain food items free of charge, as an enticement to buy. In addition to being methods of encouraging responsible beverage service, all of these efforts will mean higher average checks and, therefore, greater tips for your employees. Finally, as just mentioned, always give praise for a job well done, but realize that occasionally you will have to discipline an employee. When this situation arises, you’ll find that the more specific your written policies, the easier it will be to back up your critique and justify any disciplinary action. Your policies will also make it easier to make even-handed decisions. Do not hesitate to remind your workers that if they willfully violate your state’s liquor laws by, for example, serving alcohol to a minor, they will be dismissed immediately.

Promote Responsible Service If you expect your employees to support your policies, you must support them. This means that you do not ask your staff to act irresponsibly, even one time. Don’t ask them to bend the rules for your friends or relatives, so-called good customers, or regular guests. Doing so will undermine any credibility you might have built with them. Instead stress to staff that their working conditions (and probably their tips) will be better when they are serving people who are in control of themselves. Communicate regularly with employees; this can be done in short meetings at regular intervals. At these meetings ask staff for ideas and address potential problems. Invite speakers from law-enforcement agencies or your alcoholic-beverage commission, or a counselor,

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to address, for example, the problems inherent with teen drinking, or alcoholism and related behavior. Provide examples and praise those who have exhibited good judgment in handling difficult situations. As far as publicity is concerned, many formerly popular promotions are coming back in vogue. Gone are the days of all-you-can-drink offers, but two-for-one drink specials, ladies-drink-discount nights, and happy hours have been returning, probably because of the economic downturn. Restaurant and bar owners are using these promotional devices to entice customers to return to “going out.” Another focus of promotional activities has shifted toward events, themes, holidays, and entertainment and away from strictly alcoholic enticements. Emphasize your food specials, however limited. Provide fun and entertainment that showcase your atmosphere. To do this, you’ll need to know who your customers are, both regular and infrequent. Take the time to analyze why these individuals visit your business. What makes your establishment unique? What makes it appeal to “your” crowd? You’ll learn more about researching your target market and building business in Chapter 3, but for the purpose of this discussion, remember that if you promote heavy alcoholic-beverage consumption, this practice could be used against you in court. Avoid advertising activity that fosters or glamorizes intoxication. One good way to divert attention from alcohol is to plan an interesting, delicious menu that complements alcoholic-beverage sales. The food doesn’t have to be gourmet, just appealing and satisfying. Be sure the choices include some fatty, highprotein snacks, which help absorb alcohol. Consider offering a free or moderately priced appetizer buffet in the early evening in lieu of the two-for-one happy hour. If you own a restaurant, consider the idea of bundling, or offering a food and drink in combination, for example, including a bottle of wine with two dinner entrées, or a free appetizer with an alcoholic beverage. Ask your wine or spirits supplier for help with these promotions; perhaps he or she will be willing to give you discounts on the cost of goods or help you pay for advertising costs.

CRISIS MANAGEMENT Smart managers plan for the possibility of injuries, legal and insurance entanglements, and bad publicity, which are all consequences of alcoholic-beverage-related incidents. These events must be treated at least as seriously as a fire, flood, or armed robbery, and they should be part of your crisis management contingency plans. The Bar Code, quoted throughout this chapter, has some suggestions for crafting a crisismanagement plan that will restore normalcy as soon as possible following an incident of this sort. It involves a three-pronged approach, each with a series of steps to follow. First, you must address immediate needs, in this sequence: 1. Contact the manager or owner. 2. Call police, ambulance, and/or emergency services as needed. 3. Safeguard guests and employees by cleaning up spills and breakage. (Ask police about specifics in case of a crime scene.) 4. Reassure guests while the incident is being resolved.

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Second, you must manage the crisis: 1. Gather accurate information from as many sources as you can. 2. Contact attorneys and insurance agents. 3. Assign a trained spokesperson to handle information requests from the press or regulatory or law-enforcement agencies. 4. Decide whether to temporarily close or to immediately return to normal operation. Third, you must assess, then repair any damages: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Determine the cause of the crisis. Assess damages to the property, employee wages, and the flow of business. Begin repairs. Launch a marketing effort to offset damages to your public image. Identify and reward employees who reacted quickly to minimize damages. Deal with employees’ reactions: guilt, fear, anger, depression. Revise policies and training procedures to prevent a recurrence.

SUMMING UP Practicing responsible alcohol service is the only way to ensure the safety of your guests, employees, and business. Much involved in this practice is common sense, but, in addition, you must educate yourself about alcohol and its impact on the human body, both positive and negative. It is important for sellers of alcoholic beverages to recognize and not minimize the negative effects of alcohol, and to develop written policies and training programs for staff members about how to deal with uncomfortable or potentially dangerous situations. You might be forced to deal with numerous medical, social, and legal complications when someone drinks too much. Remember that, although the liver metabolizes most of the alcohol in the body, it does not do so quickly, complicating the question of exactly when a person has crossed the line and is “legally drunk.” Everything from that person’s natural tolerance, to weight, mood, and any medications they are taking, combined with the location of your establishment, can affect how hard alcohol hits them. Teach your staff members to recognize the signs and symptoms of problem drinkers, including alcoholics and binge drinkers. Familiarize yourself with your local dramshop and third-party-liability laws, drunken-driving laws, blood-alcohol-content (BAC) laws, and the penalties for serving alcohol to minors, keeping in mind that states and counties have specific, and differing, laws, and any of several different agencies may be responsible for upholding them. As the owner or manager of a business that serves alcohol, you should have written policies, rules and guidelines for your establishment that cover alcoholicbeverage service, intelligent management of uncomfortable or dangerous situations, and penalties for staff members who break the rules or laws. Before hiring, screen

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potential employees carefully for behavioral problems that may be alcohol- or drug-related. Following training, require every employee to sign a statement signifying that he or she understands your policies and is willing to abide by them. Implement a crisismanagement plan to help all staff know how to cope with a serious incident; enlist the help of experts—attorneys, law-enforcement officers, and insurance agents—to stay current with the laws. By taking these precautions, you will create a safe, pleasant, and friendly place with a good reputation, one to which people will keep coming back. You’ll minimize property damage to the establishment, and reduce or eliminate conflicts between guests. Everyone benefits from well-considered and well-instituted preparedness programs.

POINTS TO PONDER 1. Why does alcohol circulate in the bloodstream several hours after it was first ingested? 2. Name three effects that alcohol typically has on most people. 3. What distinguishes alcoholic behavior from the behavior of someone who drinks occasionally? 4. What is a per se law? Do you think the current per se laws in your state are fair? Why or why not? 5. As a waiter, how might you determine when a guest is starting to get drunk? 6. What are the responsibilities of the door staff at a nightclub? 7. Does your school have regulations about student drinking, or binge drinking, on or off campus? If so, who enforces them? If not, why not? 8. What types of documentation should a restaurant or bar have on file that are directly related to the service of alcoholic beverages? 9. What are the unique challenges of in-room alcohol availability in hotels? 10. What is third-party liability and how does it potentially affect you or your staff as a bar owner?

TERMS OF THE TRADE acetaldehyde administrative liability alcoholism alco-pop antioxidant ataxia beer belly binge drinking

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blood alcohol content (BAC) bundling caloric restriction congener criminal liability cytokines dramshop law drunkorexia

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DUI (or DWI) ethanol fatty liver fetal alcohol effects (FAE) fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) flavonoids folate foreseeability hangover ignition-interlock law incident report malternative metabolize negligence

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neoprohibition neotemperance per se law phenolic compounds pomace post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) reasonable care resveratrol suggestive selling tannins third-party liability t-PA antigen tyramine Zero Tolerance

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A CONVERSATION WITH . . . CHRIS HOOVER Attorney at Law–Dallas, Texas This interview has a different slant from the others that you will read in this book. Chris Hoover is an attorney who specializes in defending people accused of drunken driving. He has some strongly held opinions about DWI laws and third-party liability, and about the clash of law enforcement and science in obtaining evidence and making arrests in these cases. Hoover began as a general practice attorney in Texas in 1986, doing (as he puts it) ‘‘everything from probate to real estate to divorce cases.’’ In 1991, he received a flyer inviting him to an informational course for defense attorneys, teaching them what police officers learn about making DWI arrests. He found it fascinating and began taking additional law courses focused on DWI-related topics. By 1997 he had shifted his practice strictly to DWI defense. In his prelaw days, Hoover worked in the restaurant industry, as a waiter and trainer for the Steak & Ale chain. Q: When people come to your law office, what is the typical situation? What kinds of potential trouble are they in? A: Their arrest can be the result of anything from overzealous police picking up young kids, which we have a lot of in some areas, to just regular law enforcement, to the ‘‘Home for the Holidays’’ special DWI task force, out to make extra money and finding someone who’s weaving in and out of lanes. It doesn’t even really have to be the result of real bad driving, to be honest with you. If it’s 1:00 A.M.

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and in a bar-related area and you seem to be having trouble staying in your lane, you’ve got a 90 percent chance of getting stopped. DWI transcends all socioeconomic boundaries. For the most part, my clients are pretty nice people that either made a mistake or got caught up in a net. What they have in common is that they are all scared because they’ve entered into a process that they have absolutely no experience with or knowledge about. And they’re afraid every inch of the way. I never see 90 percent of them again—in my line of work, I discourage repeat business! But 10 percent come back on a regular basis until they go away for long periods of time because of big sentences; or they end up hurting or killing someone, and then they do go away for a long time. Q: Tell us about the financial ramifications of DWI arrests, for individuals and for states. A: Well, my practice is in Texas, so we’ll use Texas as an example. The state has approximately 100,000 DWI arrests a year, and of those people, about 95,000 lose their driving privileges for either refusing to take a breath test or testing above the legal limit of .08. Each of those people has to pay a $125 reinstatement fee to the Texas Department of Public Safety—that’s $11,875,000. When their licenses are suspended, they’re entitled to get an Occupational Driver’s License to drive up to 12 hours during a 24-hour period for work, school, or household duties. That used to cost $10, but now it costs a minimum of $150, which is paid to the county. Let’s say 82,000 of them apply for it; that’s $12,300,000 to the

counties. And let’s say that roughly 85,000 of them are actually convicted of DWI. In September 2003, the state started requiring them to pay a surcharge to get their licenses back, of $1,000 a year for three years. That’s another $85 million a year. We’re still not including fines and court costs, which also vary by county. The average fine on a DWI in Texas is $500 to $700, and then they’ll pay another $250 for court costs to prosecute the case. I could keep going, but the point is that DWI is a big, money-making racket. Q: You walk an interesting line in this field. How do you see your role? A: My job is to make sure that the criminal justice system doesn’t break down somewhere. In other words, I don’t want the system to go so low that a cop can arrest and convict you all by himself. In that respect, I think DWI defense is on the front line for criminal defense, because they have made so many ‘‘DWI exceptions.’’ For instance, your conversation with a police officer at the roadside is not, unless you establish that you’re in custody, subject to Miranda rights. Therefore, all of your statements, although incriminatory, are totally admissible against you. The questions—‘‘How have you been drinking? How many? When was your first? When was your last?’’—are all coming into court against you, and nobody’s telling you this at the time they’re gathering that information. It’s not like if you were a suspect in a convenience store robbery, where a police officer says, ‘‘I’m here to talk to you, but you need to

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understand that you’re considered a suspect in a criminal activity and you have the right to remain silent and talk to a lawyer before you say anything.’’ DWI is an exception to that rule. And the courts, all the way up to the United States Supreme Court, have swung the pendulum that way. Q: Are you seeing any trends in this type of law? A: I’ve seen a considerable rise in the use of prescription antidepressants, which cause a whole different situation with the mix of chemicals and alcohol in the body. These are very powerful and serious drugs, and people are not necessarily being warned about the problems of combining them with alcohol. Videotaping, both before and after arrests, is another controversial issue. They split that hair by saying it’s not ‘‘testimonial’’ in nature; therefore, it’s not protected by the Fifth Amendment—that’s the one that says you have the right not to testify against yourself. So you’re seeing more and more cameras in the squad cars, although the cops on the street don’t like them either. In the courtroom, the biggest battle we’re fighting in DWI law right now is the admissibility of ‘‘scientific’’ evidence. This means using various types of technology—different types of breathalyzers, flashlights with sensors on them to detect alcohol on a person’s breath—as well as administering the Standardized Field Sobriety Tests. Q: Those are the things you do when you are asked by a police officer to step out of the car, right? A: That’s right. There are three of them: the walk-and-turn test, asking you to stand on one leg, and the horizontal nystagmus test, which is when the officer waves a pen horizontally across your eye,

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looking for a jerky motion. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, in forming these nationalized standards, had no control group in its study, and there is a lot of debate about the lack of actual peer-reviewed science involved in creating these standards that are now being used to make decisions about whether or not to arrest people. Q: Can bars and restaurants do anything to keep their customers from having to deal with all this—and also save themselves the third-party liability hassles? A: First you must develop a procedure for dealing with the guy or girl who is overconsuming, and it needs to be pretty airtight. If you’re any good at being a waiter or bartender, you know what your customers are drinking and how fast they’re ordering. It’s not that hard to keep up with it, especially now, with all the computerized ordering systems. Managers should understand that these types of customers put the servers in a tough spot. Servers are trying to make money by pleasing the guest, so it should be the manager’s responsibility to handle the situation, talk with the guest, and have some options ready. I think the cost of having a relationship with a limousine service is well worth the money, for you to be able to say, ‘‘We’re gonna keep your car here. We’re gonna give you a free ride home, and you can come back tomorrow and get your keys and take your car.’’ For the customer, when he gets up the next day and knows he had too much to drink and was probably a jerk, it’s embarrassing enough. But if someone treated you well, put you in the backseat of a nice Lincoln Town Car and took you home rather than calling a taxi, and paid for it, that’s going to leave a

favorable impression. There are also saliva tests, which you might use if you could do it in a way that would not be offensive—like giving ’em to every one of your customers with their check, so no one feels singled out. They are strips that you can put on your tongue and see what color it changes to. It might be a nice little novelty. Everyone’s awareness of alcohol use is very high now; they’re not as likely to be offended as they would have been, say, 10 years ago. You also have to be especially watchful with private-party situations, things like wedding receptions and holiday parties. These should be discussed when the event is first being booked: ‘‘Have you arranged for transportation for the guests?’’ This is another instance when your partnership with the limo service can come in handy. For an extra charge, you could offer it as part of the package. Q: Any final thoughts for wouldbe bar owners and managers? A: I think the most important thing to note is that responsible social drinking is not against the law. I’m angry about our DWI laws because so many innocent people get caught up in them and are afraid to put another drop of liquor in their mouths, ever. That should upset anyone in the industry. I despise it. The other thing I want to say is unfortunate—but unless somebody’s violent or causing a major disruption of your bar or restaurant, you’re better off getting a limo or a cab and taking the person out of there than calling a cop. The only way a cop can take them out of there is to arrest them, or take them to jail. When that happens, then the system has started. The paperwork begins, and it may change that customer’s life forever. So I would think of every available alternative to get that person home safely before involving law enforcement.

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CHAPTER 3

CREATING AND MAINTAINING A BAR BUSINESS

W

hile some things about the bar business will never change, you’ve got to stay on your toes in order to remain successful in this trendiest of industries. This means keeping an eye on what your customers’ lives will be like, even when they’re not at your establishment, years from now. Here are just a few of the projections, twists and turns—as predicted by the Pew Research Center and the National Restaurant Association: 䡲 If current trends continue, the United States’ population will rise from 296 million in 2005 to 438 million in 2050. Of this increase, 82 percent will be the result of immigrants who have arrived during this period, and their U.S.-born descendants. That makes one in five U.S. residents an immigrant (19 percent) in 2050, compared to one in eight in 2005. 䡲 During the same 45-year period, the largest current minority group, the Latino population, will triple in size to account for most of the nation’s population growth. In fact, Hispanics will make up 29 percent of the U.S. population in 2050, compared with 14 percent in 2005. 䡲 The country also will “grow older” as its population over age 65 will more than double in size from 2005 through 2050, as the so-called Baby Boom generation enters retirement. 䡲 Working-age Americans and children will shrink in numbers and grow more slowly than the senior population; however, many who are of typical retirement age will remain in the workforce. 䡲 The use of technology and social networking (Facebook, Twitter, etc.) for information about places to go, bargains, Internet-only discounts will continue to increase. 䡲 A few important factors will become even more so in purchasing decisions: convenience, buying local, and organic and environmental trends. 䡲 From 2003 to 2007, the bar and tavern industry grew in sales from $13.9 million to $15.8 million, and full-service restaurants grew from $148 million to almost $182 million. 䡲 Real income growth will continue at a slower pace. The so-called “middle class” has been roughly divided into four segments: Top of the Class, the Satisfied Middle, the Anxious Middle, and the Struggling Middle. Members of

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all four will make less money and, overall, the “class” will shrink in size. There will be more super-rich people, as well as more truly poor people, in America. The economic downturn of 2008 and 2009 was an especially tough time for food and beverage purveyors. Many establishments closed their doors because of lack of sales, as their traditional customers cut back, while the price of raw goods climbed ever higher. In some cases, poor planning, overplanning, or lack of essential financial management was to blame, at least in part. Considering the demographic predictions just mentioned, it appears at first glance that the hospitality industry may find customers at both the highest and lowest price points, but middle-income customers will generally have less money to spend on entertainment and may be hard-pressed to find bar and restaurant concepts that fit their niche. A more diverse clientele, both in terms of ages and cultures, is guaranteed, and hospitality industry employees will reflect this diversity, too. In this chapter, let’s assume you are going to open a new, or renovate an existing, bar to take these modern trends into account. Although this chapter discusses planning the actual physical facility in which you will serve beverages, we begin by addressing how to decide which types of customers you want to serve, which kinds of physical surroundings will appeal to them, and where you will locate your enterprise to serve them. Many ingredients go into creating just the right environment: the atmosphere, the décor, the efficient use of space, the bar itself. Since every bar business is different, the discussion centers on basic questions and the principles and guidelines you can follow to find the answers for your specific situation. THIS CHAPTER WILL HELP YOU . . . 䡲 Develop an overall concept and tailor it to meet the needs and desires of a particular clientele. 䡲 Study the market, choose an appropriate location, and determine financial feasibility. 䡲 Plan an atmosphere and décor suitable to a concept and its intended clientele. 䡲 Plan the efficient use of available space. 䡲 Analyze the design and space needs of the bar itself. 䡲 Weigh the pros and cons of hiring professional design consultants. 䡲 Examine the major factors before investing in a specific location or building.

I

f you were to pick up a 10-year-old entertainment guide to almost any city in this country and compare it with a current guide, you would be astonished by the number of bars and restaurants listed in it that no longer exist, as well as the number of establishments flourishing today that were not in business 10 years ago. The food-and-beverage industry is famous for its volatility and, often, for the magnitude of individual failure. Sometimes, it doesn’t seem to make sense: Why does one bar fail while another, directly across the street, is successful year after year?

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The reasons for hits and misses in the bar-and-beverage industry are often complex and can’t always be blamed on such ready targets as the economy or location, location, location. Like the entertainment business, food-and-beverage facilities are vulnerable to bad luck, the fickleness of music and fashion trends, superstition (for example, a location that seems to be a magnet for businesses that never make it), even the weather. But, more often, success or failure is a consequence of management and planning. Either can be good or poor, with the consequent results. The elements that make up good planning and management are extraordinarily interdependent, and isolating them is a somewhat arbitrary task. In practice, they are not separate, but highly interactive. Nevertheless, we’ll examine them one at a time. This chapter focuses on the space itself, and how to determine the types of customers who will want to frequent it. As you will soon notice, today’s bar business is often part of a larger operation that includes foodservice. Some of the discussion that follows, therefore, will apply to a total facility. You could not, for instance, plan the décor of a bar located in a restaurant without considering the restaurant, too. But for now, we will focus on only those physical aspects of the total facility that affect beverage service.

TARGETING YOUR CLIENTELE The starting point for designing a successful bar is to identify its target clientele: Whom do you want to attract and serve? Who will generate the profit to pay your bills? Whose enjoyment will be enough to keep you working hard at this business, month after month? Customers are the focal points around which everything else revolves: the atmosphere, décor, entertainment, sound, lighting, and even the drinks you serve. While you may not have considered this, customers also influence your location, your floor plan, your bar equipment and the kinds of staff members you hire. Many people dream of opening “a little place” that will be their idea of perfection, convincing themselves that the public will surely recognize it for its excellence and, “when word gets around,” will flock to its doors. Unfortunately, it doesn’t often work that way. Everyone has his or her own idea of perfection, and it is impossible to please all. People go to bars for various reasons, bringing with them different needs and expectations. Usually the drink is not the primary motive; after all, they can buy any beverage they want at a package (liquor) store for much less money and do their drinking at home. Therefore, we must begin by exploring the different types of customers and their motives for patronizing bar businesses.

Types of Customers We can divide customers into several different groups according to their reasons for choosing to imbibe in a public setting: 䡲

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Diners at restaurants where drinks are served. These diners come to enjoy a good meal and a drink, whether in the form of a cocktail, wine, an after-dinner drink, or

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all three. Each enhances the enjoyment of the total experience. Although the food may be the primary focus at a restaurant, people often want to drink an alcoholic beverage, too. Restaurants that do a flourishing business without alcohol are the exception rather than the rule. Drop-in customers who are on their way elsewhere. They typically want refreshment, a quick pick-me-up or a stress reliever after a day’s work. In this case, the drink is the focus; the customer has one or two at most, then is on the move again. People who are waiting to board a plane or a train or are meeting someone at the bar also belong to this group. Bars near office buildings or factories and in train or bus stations, airports, and hotel lobbies typically cater to this category of customer. Meet-and-go customers. These individuals are looking for a relationship connection, whether a date for the evening or a longer-term plan. They go to singles bars or “meet bars” that are attractive to similar individuals. They stay long enough to meet someone with whom they would like to spend the evening, and the two may or may not move on to a place where the food and/or the entertainment is more suitable for whatever it is they have in mind for the evening. Today, most singles bars include dancing and very late-night hours. Entertainment seekers looking for relaxation, stimulation, or a change of pace. They frequent bars, lounges, clubs, and restaurants where entertainment is offered, whether it is live music, games, and/or dancing. These individuals want to meet new people or keep up with social trends. They may visit several places or spend a whole evening in one place if the entertainment, the drinks, and the company are to their liking. Sports fans. In almost every major city, you’ll now find at least one sports bar, featuring big-screen television viewing from every angle and special promotions for championship games, boxing matches, and so on. Another newer trend is the cigar bar, where guests can puff away at high-priced cigars and enjoy high-end liquors to go with them. The idea is that people want to commune with individuals who share their interests, whether that means a great game or a great smoke. (Despite the growing number of states that make smoking in public places illegal, there are still cigar bars, as well as states in which bars [but not restaurants] are exempt from the no-smoking regulations.) Regular patrons of neighborhood bars and taverns. These folks are interested in enjoyment and relaxation, too, but their primary desire is for companionship: being with people whom they know and like, feeling comfortable, feeling that they belong.

Most customers fall into one or more of these groups. The moods, tastes, and interests of the groups differ, and the people tend to differ in background and lifestyle as well, although some individuals cross group lines at times. A diner or entertainment seeker at home might be a drop-in customer on a business trip, because the mood and purpose have changed. Generally, however, in spite of some crossover, these groups are not especially compatible. A customer from one group visiting a bar frequented by another group is prone to think of the others as the “wrong crowd”—people who certainly are not dangerous but just different enough to make an outsider or newcomer

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feel somewhat uneasy and out of place. In such cases, the outsider does not experience the venue as having a friendly atmosphere, even if the bar personnel are friendly and the drinks are great. He or she won’t stay long—or come back. Within these broad groups are many subgroups, divided loosely according to lifestyle, interests, age, income level, family status, occupation or social status, even gender. A few of the largest and most common subgroups are defined in the following subsections.

Women. As purchasers and consumers of alcoholic beverages, women exert a powerful influence, which is destined to become even greater in the years to come. According to 2008 U.S. Census Bureau figures, more than 112 million women in the United States are of legal drinking age, which represents a huge opportunity for the hospitality industry. Today’s female customer is likely to be better educated, and to marry later in life—or not at all. Women today also make up a large portion of the workforce, which means they have discretionary income. They are responsible in large part for the increase in popularity of so-called white goods—the clear liquors, such as gin and vodka—and first claimed the Cosmopolitan (vodka and cranberry juice) as their own, wildly popular invention in the 1990s. Many women form groups to share regular, informal dinners or drinks weekly or monthly at a favorite place. Still, for many women, going to a bar (especially alone) can be an uncomfortable experience, so the savvy bar owner will make an effort to put them at ease. Something as simple as acknowledging the customer within the first 30 seconds of her arrival in the establishment is a major factor in raising her overall comfort level. Cleanliness and unquestionable quality of ingredients also rank as higher priorities among female customers than male customers. For instance, surveys reveal that many women regard hanging glasses above the bar as unsanitary, particularly if smoking is allowed there. Servers should always offer clean napkins with a drink, a courteous touch that women expect and appreciate. In short, a female clientele is observant and knowledgeable, awarding loyalty to places that earn it.

Latino Customers. In 2009, there were more than 45 million Americans of Hispanic origin, about 20 million from Mexico—in the 1990s, the number of U.S. residents of Mexican ancestry jumped by 53 percent—but others are from Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the nations of Central and South America. Finally, many distillers and brewers have acknowledged this trend by advertising in Spanish, and more can be done to adequately address this customer category. To build lasting relationships with this broad and diverse group, we must develop an understanding of the intricate differences that distinguish one ethnicity from the next. In some communities, there is little push to assimilate into the melting pot, with widespread Spanish-language media and generalized support for the various Hispanic cultures. Often they can continue to live and work within native-language environments. But one thing is clear: community, family, and tradition are powerful Hispanic values. According to a 2005 report from marketing research group Ipsos Insight, cultural

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values often dictate spending practices. The importance of family, immediate and extended; an emphasis on aesthetics and emotions, devotion to tradition and a strong emphasis on quality of life and enjoyment are bedrock issues for most of the Hispanic community. In fact, a popular Hispanic saying is “one works to live, not lives to work.” Words to the wise for anyone aiming to serve this fast-growing clientele.

Baby Boomers. Americans born between 1946 and 1964 are considered “Baby Boomers,” the last generation to grow up in an American society in which drinking was the norm. Members of this generation are now in their fifties and are in the prime of their careers. Unlike their parents, boomers refuse to think of themselves as old or even middle aged. According to the National Restaurant Association this age group spends more money dining out than any other demographic category: 23 percent more than the average person on restaurant dining. Although boomers might not be crazy about exercise, many work out to stay in shape, at least partly so they can continue to enjoy certain foods and beverages, including beef, pastries, eggs, and, yes, alcohol—in moderation. Boomers in general are relaxed and open about drinking, and they do not hesitate to take their children with them when they dine out; these attitudes have affected the dining industry. Today a whole group of casual but slightly upscale “adult-fast-food” eateries are designed to cater to Boomers’ families; TGI Friday’s, Applebee’s, Chili’s, to name just a few, appeal to these time-crunched, child-toting, beverage-savvy boomers, who enjoy relaxing over a fairly quick but well-prepared meal that features both drinks from the bar and a children’s menu. Baby Boomers also tend to be partial to intense flavors in their foods and beverages, and they are willing to pay higher prices for specialty beers and premium wines and liquors. They are both knowledgeable and critical about their foods and beverages, so servers themselves need to know a lot about the wine, beer, and cocktails available because they will be asked.

Generations X and Y. No one knows quite how to describe the wave of legal-age customers who entered the market as the twenty-first century began. Simple definitions elude this group of nearly 33 million, raised with the Internet as a playmate. They have been dubbed either Generation X (ages 25 to 29) or Generation Y (ages 21 to 30). They constitute 21 percent of the workforce, quickly moving from college (many have at least bachelor’s degrees) into jobs and incomes that took their parents years to achieve. Web-based marketing is a critical component of any marketing plan for these technologically savvy consumers. About 68 percent of this information-saturated group drinks alcohol: 50 percent prefer beer; 36 percent, distilled spirits; and 10 percent, wine. The rest drink all three. The group also represents some of the most frequent imbibers, with 13 percent having a drink once a week, and 26 percent once a month. However, they have also grown up with the “Just say no” mentality, which includes a clear message to drink responsibly, by assigning a designated driver or accepting a cab ride if they have overindulged. This group has grown up knowing about microbrewed beers and gourmet coffees, so they are adventurous and not especially brand-loyal—although this doesn’t stop

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FIGURE 3.1 Many bars and restaurants serving alcohol cater to families.

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Courtesy of

PhotoDisc, Inc.

the beverage industry from trying. In recent years, Kahlua has been an example of beverage-industry efforts to introduce cordials and liqueurs, with their sweetness and “mixability,” to entry-level drinkers who shy away from the more traditional Scotches and Bourbons. The American sibling of Remy-Martin introduced RemyRed, a line of Cognac-based liqueurs for the Generation Y group. Similarly the logo on Beefeater’s Gin changed in the early 2000s. The stodgy London guardsman is much younger, with a dark beard replacing the gray! Beer makers are also vigorously courting Gen X and Gen Y customers because this age group is incredibly important to the industry. Traditional media outlets (network television, radio, print, and billboards) are being augmented by computer games, websites, and cable television. The ads also appear on sports programs other than football games, including hockey, surfing, soccer, and snowboarding. When it comes to wine, this demographic appears to be more interested in the sensual aspects of the beverage and knows that it is not just for special occasions, but is an everyday beverage to be sipped with burgers, pizza, and gourmet meals. The Wine Brats, an organization founded in 1995 by the grown children of some of California’s top wine producers, attempted to spark interest in their age group and, for a while, their efforts seemed to be working. Ten years later, the Wine Brats numbered 45,000 members in 31 states. The group’s subsequent growing pains were attributed not to lack of interest but to budget-conscious wineries’ decisions to no longer pay sponsorship fees to the group. “Wine brats” or not, however, today’s young

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consumers generally don’t mind paying $8 or more in a wine-by-the-glass program. They’re eager to learn, and some of the most popular community college courses around the country are aimed at attracting prospective young winemakers.

Connoisseurs and Sophisticates. You will always find a certain number of customers who are truly well informed, enjoy food and wine as a serious hobby or vocation, and often know more than most bartenders or servers. Offering these customers a wide selection of wines or spirits is simply not enough, so some bars and restaurants have decided to specialize in a particular area and use that as a hook to attract a specific, upscale clientele. They hire a sommelier, build a wine cellar, and stock an impressive selection of old-growth Bordeaux, for example. The trade press regularly covers events in bars populated by these lively, well-heeled crowds. The sophisticated customer is willing to pay for style, cleanliness, and a well-trained service staff. The bar must be stocked with wide selections of flavored vodkas, classic single-malt Scotches, cutting-edge single-barrel Bourbons, and even some new gins, rums, and tequilas. We’ve also seen a renewed interest in bar professionalism, exemplified by people like Dale DeGroff and Tony Abou-Ganim, who pour and shake with pride, creativity, and dedication to the craft. Catering to the high-end customer includes touches like V.I.P. memberships, such as the Altitude Club at Top of the Hub in Boston. Member perks include bypassing long wait lines at the door, assurance of a window seat once inside, and a subscription to the restaurant’s quarterly newsletter. Any bar manager who runs a premium-spirits program will tell you that the customers it attracts are worth having. They will return and bring friends along. However, while offering a selection of high-end beverages can bring both prestige and profit to the business, it also increases the cost of inventory and requires a serious commitment to education, both for the staff and the guests. This commitment comes in the form of tastings, classes, seminars, multiple-course wine dinners, and the related publicity for these types of events. Suppliers and distributors are usually willing to help with these efforts, and you’d be wise to take advantage of the guest speakers and sample bottles they can provide for these occasions. If your concept allows it, consider the benefits you may incur from selling high-end beverages. So who will your customers be? You might choose to cater to any one group or subgroup; you cannot expect to please them all. In fact, it is a mistake to attempt this—it just won’t work. Part of the atmosphere of any bar is its customers and, if they don’t have something in common—mood, attitude, reason for choosing your place—the ambience will be found lacking. They won’t have a good time and probably won’t come back.

SELLING HIGH-END SPIRITS Any bar manager who runs a premium-spirits program will tell you that often return customers bring their friends along and inevitably share with them the information that they learned on their previous visit. Bar and restaurant owners have a love-hate

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relationship with high-end spirits: Offering a selection of such beverages can bring both prestige and profit to the business, but it also raises the cost of inventory and requires a serious commitment to education, both from the staff and the guests. This commitment comes in the form of tastings, classes, seminars, multicourse wine dinners, and publicity for public events. Suppliers and distributors are usually willing to help with these efforts, and you should take advantage of the guest speakers and sample bottles that they can provide for these occasions. If your concept allows it, consider the benefits you may incur from selling high-end beverages. According to the Distilled Spirits Council, spirits sales rose an estimated 4.6 percent in 2008 and, although they may account for a smaller percentage of total distilled spirit volume, they represent for a higher percent of the industry’s sales dollars. That figure has grown steadily in the last 10 years in a market where distilled spirits as a whole have lost 6 percent of their total volume. The experienced entrepreneur concentrates primarily on a single, definable customer group, or market segment, whose members will have similar reasons for visiting a bar, and shapes the entire enterprise to attract and please this group. No one group is an inherently better choice than another; you can make a profit with any type of clientele if you can satisfy their needs. One good way to help decide who will form your client base is to imagine your customers. How old are they? Where do they come from? How much money do they like to spend? Why do they go out? What kinds of drinks do they buy? What kind of atmosphere do they respond to? What appeals to them? To answer these questions, you have to do some homework: Visit the favorite places your target clientele is flocking to now. Talk to their customers. Watch their reactions. What do they like or dislike about the place? Your goal is to learn how they feel, not to decide what you like or dislike. Study everything about the operation: the décor, drinks, layout, ambience, food, entertainment or absence of it. Talk to the bartenders. Study the bottles behind the bar, the wine list, and the menu. Conduct your research locally. Tastes and interests vary widely from locale to locale, even among the same age groups and income levels. Look at ads in local papers and read the restaurant reviews. Talk to local beverage wholesalers; they are some of the best-informed people around. They know who is buying which kind of liquor and which types of customers are drinking it; which places are raking in money and which ones are having trouble paying their bills on time.

Planning Services to Define Your Image Much of what will set your bar business apart from competitors’ is your overall image, which frankly is difficult to define. The mystique of some bars cannot be fully explained. Nevertheless, you must make an effort to define whatever special character your bar exudes that will entice people to visit your establishment instead of your competitors’. Perhaps the best way to describe the necessary mindset is to think about what kind of energy you would like your bar to exude. It is a combination of what springs to customers’ minds when your place is mentioned, what they anticipate before they arrive, what lingers in their memory afterward as a special pleasure, and what will keep them coming back and bringing their friends. From this description,

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it should be clear that image is the most intriguing and elusive element of success and the one most worth striving for. Luckily, at least some components of image involve very practical decisions that must be made for this type of business, including the following: 䡲

What services will you perform for your target market, and how? Will you offer drinks with an appetizer menu, with full meals, and/or with entertainment? The extent to which food will be emphasized is a critical decision, and the food and drink concepts must somehow be related. Is entertainment part of your plan? Music options include live bands, deejays, and “canned” sound packages. Wherever people are expected to be either listening or dancing, there are special space and sound considerations. What kind of bar do you envisage? A stand-up bar favored by crowds or those in a hurry? Table-service in a cocktail lounge? Dining-room service from a service bar? A holding area for people waiting to eat in your restaurant? Sometimes the answer will be a combination of these. What kinds of drinks will you serve? Drinks for the casual light drinker or the connoisseur? Beer on tap or bottled? Wine by the glass or by the bottle? Mixed drinks? Fancy drinks? Frozen drinks? Flaming drinks? Coffee drinks? As in every other area, seek answers based on what appeals to your intended clientele, not necessarily what you yourself would buy as a customer. Specialty cocktails are to a bar what signature dishes are to a restaurant, providing an important point of difference and an opportunity to promote the business.

Some bars favor a showy image, designing places where people like to “see and be seen,” where new drinks are improvised, and where trends are born; others prefer the classic approach, serving cocktails in a more intimate or subdued atmosphere. In either setting, an establishment offering inventive but tradition-based drinks, simple to prepare but executed with crispness and showmanship, will convey the image of what a bar should be. One trend is to put a modern spin on a classic drink recipe, using a product not typically available in a home setting to develop a signature drink. For example, at the elegant Bellagio Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, mixologists create exotic special martinis, which start at a cool $12. The Outback Steakhouse chain upsells the ubiquitous margarita by offering it in several versions. One, called the Pineapple-Chipotle Margarita, uses 1800 Reposado Tequila that’s “rested” in oak barrels, giving a twist to a classic. At the Langham Hotel in Boston, you can get fancy martinis at a fancy price: $14. Offerings there include: the Penny Martini (made with Remy Martin VSOP, Crème de Menthe, and a dark chocolate stick), the Dime Martini (with Stoli Vanilla, Grand Marnier, peach schnapps, Champagne, and something called a “flaming orange twist”), the Quarter Martini (made with tequila, pomegranate and lime juice, and chili flakes), and, of course, the Greenback Martini (made with Hendrick’s Gin, St. Germain liqueur, and a cucumber slice). In today’s most successful bars and restaurants, uniqueness may begin with a signature drink, but it is carried through as a carefully planned total concept. In these venues the name of the establishment, drinks, décor, layout, service, uniforms, training program, and menu all fit into the total concept and reinforce it. Ironically individual

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customers might remember only one standout element, such as a creatively written menu full of puns, a perfect view of a giant television screen, a 1,500-bottle wine selection, or a revolving panorama of the city at night from atop a tall building. Each, however, is a symbol of the collective ambience, a crystallization of the concept. The point is that to ensure success, you need an overall concept that can tie all of the elements of your bar together. A concept should begin with an idea that can be stated simply, for example, a neighborhood bar-restaurant with a family feeling, an upscale wine bar for wine enthusiasts, or a health-and-fitness bar-restaurant where the drinks are made with fresh juices and the food is low-fat, low-calorie, and memorably tasty. Décor, lighting, menu, and service will all be developed in keeping with the concept. Your total concept will grow out of a thorough understanding of your chosen clientele and the careful planning you do to serve them. The concept will be shaped by your observations of the kinds of places your clientele favors. But it will not be a copy of these other places; its own personality, and identity will be the magnet that draws your target customer to your front door. Formulating this concept is a real challenge, so take some hints from the many examples mentioned in this chapter. In certain cases, the purpose of the bar will dictate its image. Customers of a sports bar, for example, have very clear expectations about what they will see, hear, and do when they arrive. In contrast, in a bar attached to a restaurant that takes reservations, the lines blur; of course, you’ll seat people in the bar while they wait to be seated at their tables, but this should not be the only purpose of a restaurant bar. The restaurant bar should also serve as a marketing tool for the dining room: Bar customers often look in advance at the food menu and notice other customers being escorted to their seats or waiters walking by with trays full of food. For this very reason, bars such as the Topaz Lounge in Washington, DC, and Encore in Chicago have revamped their “happy hours” with an amusing name, Liquid Therapy, using them as a chance to showcase the regular dinner menu. The point: If you can get people to come into the bar for a drink, sooner or later, they will stay for a meal. The hotel bar also presents interesting image challenges. If you cater only to hotel guests, you’ll miss out on the local crowd as a major source of revenue. Hotel bars and lounges have emerged as new hot spots for both groups, with an increasing number of small, so-called boutique hotels distinguishing themselves through their bar designs and themes in an attempt to woo both kinds of customers. The neighborhood regulars become part of an overall welcoming tone for the person who is away from home. For example, in Denver, The Cruise Room is a bar that dates back to the days of Prohibition. Owned by the Oxford Hotel, a boutique property that also happens to be the oldest hotel in Denver, The Cruise Room is one of the few remaining art deco bars. It was designed as a replica of the bar on the Queen Mary and the richly painted murals on the walls depict the Queen Mary ports of call. The bar is known for its signature martinis, made in the classic manner and using only fresh fruits and juices. In an attempt to define a new type of drinking experience—more satisfying than a bar or lounge, less formal than a restaurant—The Saint in Boston’s Copley Square Hotel refers to itself as a boutique “nitery” that fuses dining, lounging, and entertainment. It sprawls like a labyrinth and is divided into three areas, each with its own décor and music: one with more intimate, private V.I.P. tables, a blue and white “mod” vodka infusion bar, and the “Bordello Room,” draped in crimson. The place

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is crowded but, with $11 martinis and $14 appetizers (referred to as “mini-cuisine”), the clientele is distinctly upscale; even the music is provided by “celebrity deejays.” Some areas are open only to those who’ve paid for memberships, $10,000 and up. Above all, running a bar is a people business. An integral part of any bar’s image is the bartender or mixologist as many of today’s bar professionals prefer to be called. Most of us view this role as being filled by someone at the pinnacle of creative salesmanship, a friendly face with an impressive repertoire. He or she knows how to mix dozens of different drinks quickly and well, yet still has time for a joke or a chat, and will remember your name, too, after you’ve been in a few times. Bartending is a profession steeped in nineteenth-century tradition and reinforced by images in books, movies, and television shows that portray bartenders as kind, observant, amusing, and competent. They are part mixologist, part comedian, and part psychologist. Never doubt the role that great bartenders and sommeliers can play in your success—and never underestimate the importance of giving yours the tools, equipment, and ongoing training to excel at their trade. Another factor in creating an image for a hotel bar is the type of food you will serve. Simple, salty snacks—for example, mixed nuts, pretzels, and some form of trail mix—were once the norm in many hotel bars, but today that is inadequate in most cases. Guests will linger longer where there is good food, and even the smallest menu of appetizers (e.g., crowd-pleasing nachos, mini-pizzas, or a great shrimp cocktail) will add new dimensions to your customers’ enjoyment, as well as your profit picture. Offering food is also part of responsible alcohol service. In Boston, two award-winning chefs collaborate with their bartenders to create bar food that far surpasses casual snacking and elevates profit margins. Chefs Steven Brand and Susan Regis are the daring duo at Upstairs on the Square, a restaurant/ bar combination with the elegant Soiree Room set upstairs to bring in upscale clientele, while downstairs, the “Monday Club Bar” woos the 21-to-30-year-old college crowd with more casual pub fare. (The area is home to about 250,000 students who, one would assume, occasionally need a break from their Ivy League studies. . . .) Chef Stevens commandeers the Soiree Room, plying guests with such appetizer delights as: Kuri Squash Ravioli with Crispy Bacon, Parmesan and Meyer Lemon Fondue, and Sashimi of Bluefin Tuna with Avocado, Jicama, and Tempura Snap Peas. Entrée favorites include: Lemon and Parsley-Crusted Hake with Olive Oil-Crushed Potatoes; Fall Greens and Champagne Mustard Seed Beurre Blanc; Duet of Free Range Veal Braised Osso Buco with Savoy Cabbage, Turnips, Carrots Schnitzel with Fingerling Potatoes, Cornichons and Dill; and Autumn Farm Vegetables and Tiny Ricotta Gnocchi with Cardamom Wine Broth, Shiitake Mushrooms and Mint. Monday Club Bar food is served on platters for group consumption along with smaller, appetizer plates. Chef Regis wisely coordinates the menu to utilize extras from the restaurant. For instance, unused scallops are sautéed and served with celery root chips, sweet potatoes are cut into thick fries and served with tasty purees for dipping, and pizzas are topped with whatever there is plenty of. The bar menu consists of about 13 main-dish items, 10 more appetizer-sized items, and six desserts. The items range in price from $2 (for “Hot Dates”—Marcona stuffed dates wrapped with bacon) to $28 (chargrilled porterhouse lamb chop) and account for two-thirds of the bar sales.

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LOCATION AND MARKET FEASIBILITY Where will you establish your unique new beverage enterprise? You will want it to be convenient for your target customers. If you are going to serve meals as well, you will want to be accessible to a residential area, to places of work, or both. For people in search of entertainment or a companion for the evening, you will probably want a location in an area already known for its nightlife. To attract drop-ins, you will want to place yourself on the route to wherever they are going; to attract a more regular group of people, you’ll want to be near the neighborhood in which they live.

Choosing an Area Certain areas of cities tend to be lively places, where bars and restaurants are clustered and competition is intense. A crowded area has its advantages. Bright lights and crowds typically make for a festive atmosphere. People enjoy going where they’ve been before because familiar places are comfortable. Furthermore, they know that if they can’t get into one place, they can try another, so the competitive environment benefits everybody. On the other hand, such areas can become saturated when too many new ventures try to imitate the success of their predecessors. Therefore, if you are thinking of starting a business in such a location, take two precautions. First, investigate the number of businesses that have opened and, especially, closed in the area during the past few years, to try to determine which kinds of places have staying power and which kinds have been overdone. Second, study the competition carefully, and be very sure that you have something unique to offer. Can your business truly make a special contribution to the area? The alternative is to open your enterprise in an area that is in the process of being developed, or an out-of-the-way area that lacks dining and entertainment options. Of course, this might be risky, but it can be also rewarding if your research uncovers a market demand that is going unmet. Once you have made a success in a new area, however, don’t be surprised if competitors follow you, so think about building a following for the long-term and don’t expand too quickly on the basis of an initial high demand. In general, it’s a good idea to avoid declining areas; look instead at neighborhoods that are stable or growing. That said, be aware that in many cities once-neglected areas are being revived. It has become trendy and an expression of environmental conscientiousness to restore older buildings and rehabilitate dilapidated sections of town. Advantages of older properties include that they are often more spacious, are better built, and are generally more accessible than new facilities in the suburbs. Furthermore, development money is often available for people who are willing to undertake these types of projects, especially if they agree to restore the building with historically correct details and materials.

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Estimating Customer Potential Once you have an area in mind, you must determine whether enough of your targetmarket customers live in or frequent the area to support your concept. There are a number of resources for answering these questions. In some cities, you can get help free of charge from various state and local agencies that compile population demographics (e.g., who lives where, how much money they make, what their level of education is, what their eating and spending habits are) and maintain statistics about neighborhoods, urban planning, and area traffic. Chambers of Commerce have information on business growth, tourist and convention markets, and real-estate development. Banks, because they lend money to restaurants and bars, can tell you a great deal about the community in question; they can prevent you from opening the right facility in the wrong place, say a swinging singles bar in a retirement colony. Talk to real-estate agents, too; contact restaurant and club owners’ associations, and pay a visit to local restaurant-equipment firms. All will usually know who is opening and where, as well as who is closing and why. In some cities there are demographics firms that specialize in the foodservice field. They can run a computerized analysis of a specific area based on census figures, giving you data on population density, age, gender, occupation, size of household, income, ethnic makeup, money spent dining out, or whatever demographic information you specify. From such figures you can determine an area’s overall customer potential for your type of business.

Sizing Up the Competition As you explore the various areas of your town to determine customer potential, you must also closely examine potential competitors. How well are the customers’ needs and desires already being met and, even more important, how could you serve the chosen clientele better? To determine this, visit all the bars and bar-restaurants in the area that serve your target customer. Count and classify them; for each one, record its location and as much as possible of the following information: number of seats, hours, price range, average check, average number of patrons per day, number of days open per week/month/year; slow and busy days, slow and busy times of day, and annual gross volume (dollar sales per year). You can gather such data by talking to people connected with each operation, including bartenders, servers, and managers. Count the seats. How many are empty? How many people are waiting to get in? Estimate the same information for your proposed enterprise and compare. Check the total against your study of market potential. If all of your competitors are busy all the time, chances are good that you will be, too. On the other hand, if business is slow and seats are empty everywhere, you can conclude that the area is saturated and there probably is no room for you, no matter how delicious your food and drink or how charming your atmosphere—unless you are lucky enough to identify a void. For example, you discover there is no bar for the late-night theater crowd. Probably the quickest and most accurate method, but also

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the most expensive way, of learning about your competition is to hire a professional food-facilities consultant or a market-study specialist. This individual or firm will conduct a detailed investigation of a given area and the current competition, to determine whether there is a market in that area for your bar concept. Alternately, if you already have a facility but want to revamp it, a consultant’s market study can help you adapt your concept to be more up to date. But be aware that when you use a professional, you run the risk that you’ll spend a few thousand dollars for bad news: The market you are aiming for is not there. Remember, however, that this knowledge will save you much more money and grief in the long run. The cash you spend on a professional market study at the beginning of a project will be minor compared to your total investment in your business.

Selecting a Site Once you are satisfied that there are enough potential customers in your chosen area, you can begin to shop for a specific site. When you do this, it is important that you attempt to see each site through the customers’ eyes. Does it have good visibility? Is there adequate public transportation nearby? Is there plenty of parking? Is it easy to reach? Watch out for one-way streets, planned future construction, and heavy traffic. Be alert to changing circumstances; talk to other retailers in the neighborhood. If you are thinking of taking over an existing facility, find out exactly why the last tenant(s) left and, if you should decide to convert a failedrestaurant site, plan to start with a clean slate; keep nothing reminiscent of the past concept or ownership.

Consider the Structure. You might choose a freestanding building, or one that is part of a complex, such as a shopping mall or a unit in a strip mall with street access and good visibility. In a strip mall the ideal location is the end unit because it has two visible walls, front and side. Depending on your concept and target clientele, you might even consider space in an office building or along an underground walkway where there are shops and pedestrian traffic. As mentioned earlier don’t overlook the possibility of refurbishing an older building, whether a warehouse, a church, a school, or a gas station. Converting from a different use is usually less expensive than starting with an empty shell, and, keep in mind that such a building might have historic value, or image potential, to bring to your concept. Most important check out the licensing, zoning, and other restrictions of the area you are scouting because even different parts of the same city might have different licensing requirements. For example, a nearby church or school might prevent your getting a license to sell alcohol in the same area, even if your business is going to be a family-themed restaurant. Simply put, zoning restrictions can make it impossible to open the kind of facility you want or to open at all in your chosen location. At the very least, cutting through the red tape involved in the permit and licensing process can delay your opening for months. In relation to all this, consider the importance of a favorable community attitude. If you discover the community is hostile to the opening of your enterprise, it might be better to start over in another area.

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Determine Financial Feasibility. Finally, be aware that even the most promising site might turn out to be unprofitable if costs and operating expenses are high in relation to potential sales volume. To determine this ratio you need to analyze the financial feasibility of your projected business for that site and market area. To begin, draft a realistic financial plan for your intended facility in terms of your profit goal. Estimate the capital needed for land and buildings, furnishings and equipment, and opening expenses, as well as a reserve for operating at a loss in the beginning. Next, based on your market research for your site, make a detailed projection of sales and receipts against fixed and variable expenses. These projections should represent an operating budget, which is described in Chapter 14, with detailed plans for such items as drink menu, staff, and hours of operation. Estimate sales conservatively and expenses liberally. If the income does not exceed expenses by the desired profit margin, your project is not feasible for that market and location.

ATMOSPHERE AND DÉCOR The atmosphere of your place will determine who comes to buy drinks from you, how long they stay, how much they spend, and whether they come back and bring their friends. This is simple to understand. After all, why do people go to bars? They go to have a good time. They don’t go just to drink; they go to relax, to socialize, to rendezvous with old friends or meet new ones, or perhaps to be alone with a special person; they go to escape their everyday mood and scene. If you can transport them from a world of problems, deadlines, and frustrations to a world of pleasure, you will have the first ingredient of success.

Successful Examples Consider a few bar concepts that have thrived in recent years, in addition to those we have already mentioned. Perhaps the most imitated restaurant/bar concept in the United States is TGI Friday’s. The actual bar, which is corralled with brass rails and trimmed with stained glass, continues to be as central to the restaurant’s business in the new millennium as it was in 1965, when the chain was founded in New York City. Quite literally, the bar is “central” to the restaurant: TGI Friday’s was the first to locate its bar area prominently in the middle of the front-of-house restaurant space. For all its years of existence, TGI Friday’s has continued to serve good drinks in an atmosphere that has remained consistent. It has a bustling, friendly, and casual ambience. The chain has its own World Bartender Championship and its website features world-class bartending videos, plus a list of its drinks categorized by occasions: First Date (fruity drinks), Girl’s Night Out (fancy martinis ala Cosmos), Celebrations (Friday’s Ultimate drink specials), Fiesta (margaritas), Just Because (classic cocktails), Anniversaries (fine wines), and the Main Event (all about beer).

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Another good example of a successful casual atmosphere is Fado’s, an Irish pub first built in Atlanta, which now has more than a dozen locations dotting the United States. The original Atlanta bar was designed and built in Ireland, then shipped to the United States, where it was assembled and decorated by a team of Irish craftspeople. Although the building’s shell was already in place, most fixtures, fittings, and furniture are Irish. Its dark, floor-to-ceiling wood interior is stuffed with all things Irish, from sports memorabilia to quotes from the Green Isle’s literary greats. Today, the Fado’s theme is carried out in each of the chain’s locations. You can get a pint (20ounce glass) of Guinness Stout or Harp Lager, Ireland’s signature brews, or sample a microbrew from the local area (the latter being Fado’s way of acknowledging the local scene). The bar also offers a list of famous Irish whiskies. And, as you would expect in a true Irish pub, conversation is the main attraction—“What we call ‘craic,’” says the website. The Continental in Philadelphia is a restored, stainless steel 1960s diner that has been converted into a martini lounge. (See Figure 3.2) The design of everything, from menus to uniforms, is strictly controlled, created to appeal to an under-30 crowd. The décor features oversized olive-shaped halogen lamps pierced with huge toothpicks and olive-green banquettes with pimiento-red accents. The chic interior has been featured in Harper’s Bazaar and Interior Design. The combination of sweet, juice-spiked cocktails, and trendy and cheeky twists on classics—including the Buzz Aldrin, Hawaii 5-O, and Dean Martin—come in distinctive martini glasses so that even the most the inexperienced customer feels sophisticated. The drinks are delivered in individual martini shakers emblazoned with the Continental logo (which are available for sale) and poured at the table. A smart balance of modern twists to venerable martinimaking traditions has enabled the bar owners to make the transition from trendy hot spot to established classic, turning a new, younger crowd into loyal customers. At the Flatiron Lounge in New York City owner/mixologist Julie Reiner believes bartenders require their own domains, set up exactly as they wish, to create their own cocktail whims and build a loyal following. The Flatiron structure is designed to hold more bottles than most, including Reiner’s trademark unique, fresh juices—liquid guava, passion fruit, hibiscus, and more. The bar features themed martini flights, featuring three mini-martinis such as the Flight Back in Time (the Rat Pack’s favorites) or the Flight to Hawaii (heavy on the pineapple). The bar’s history brings even more ambiance: the 30-foot mahogany bar was built in 1927 and meticulously restored and was once stationed in The Ballroom, famous for its own dropin celebs such as Frank Sinatra. The Flatiron Lounge décor FIGURE 3.2 One view of the sleek, stylish Contiis art deco upstairs with jazz; downstairs—plush, club-style nental Restaurant & Martini Bar. Not shown here: modern luxury, complete with banquettes and today’s cutting- overhead lighting shaped like olives. Courtesy of STARR Restaurants, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. edge music.

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THE BLUE AGAVE CLUB Do you want to know more about tequila? You can sample more than 200 different types and brands at the Blue Agave Club in Pleasanton, California. Restaurateurs Alexandro and Susan Garcia opened the 70-seat restaurant and bar in 1997 to showcase gourmet Mexican cuisine and the adaptability of Mexico’s “national spirit.” Tequila is part of the food menu, too: Chef Ramon Sepulveda uses it in the salad dressing, as a component of sauces, and to baste barbecued meats and flame elegant desserts. Two months of the year (June and September) people reserve seats for five-course gourmet meals that pair tequilas with food. “The idea was not only to showcase the true flavors of Mexico,” explains Alexandro, “but to dispel some of the myths about tequila. People here say, ‘Tequila makes me crazy,’ and ‘Tequila gives me a headache, or a bad hangover.’ Well, they need to know it’s because they are not drinking the real tequila; they are drinking the more commercial, mixed spirits. Real tequila is every bit as sophisticated as wine.” Some of the larger tequila producers, says Alexandro, ship tanker trucks of product from Mexico into the United States to be blended and bottled, but, technically, tequila is the only spirit made in a single nation. So if you’re interested in taste-testing tequila, the Blue Agave is the place to go, and you’ll find that the “tastes” are generous. In villages of past centuries, tequila was poured into a bull’s horn as measurement, and the resulting amount was about 2 ounces. Alexandro’s grandfather told him long ago why the 2-ounce pour is called a caballo, the Spanish word for horse. “In Old Mexico, tequila was sold

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on the street corners, and people were on horseback. They’d work in the fields, then ride into the small towns for a drink. But the drink was so potent that they didn’t dare get off their horses because they wouldn’t be able to get back on! So my grandfather said you’d see groups of 10, 20, 30 men on the corner, all on horseback, drinking and talking.” Luckily at the Blue Agave Club you can also get caballitos (“little horses”) of 1 ounce or ½ ounce. They also pour flights tastes of several different styles of tequila, so you can compare blanco, reposado, and anejo. Despite tequila’s availability by the shot, the most popular drinks at the Blue Agave Club are Margaritas. The restaurant has been distinguished with Best Margarita honors by its patrons and local food critics. Alexandro says the secret to making the perfect Margarita (more than 100 selections are on the menu) is his proprietary sweet-and-sour recipe, which is made fresh daily. The restaurant sponsors well-attended tequila dinners and tastings, featuring tequila producers as guest speakers. Word of mouth has been the restaurant’s best form of advertising. “The customers love the idea of learning more,” says Alexandro. “They sometimes comment on the prices, I mean, the high-dollar tequilas cost $45 to $75 for the 2-ounce pour, but I tell them, ‘Just imagine if this was made in France! You’d be paying $200 a shot!’ It’s a completely natural, pure spirit with nothing artificial added in the distilling process. Showcasing it like this, in a high-end restaurant environment, has been a very good idea and a lot of fun.”

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FIGURE 3.3 Alexandro Garcia, owner of the Blue Agave Club in Pleasanton, California. Photo courtesy of Mats Bodin. Used with permission of Bodin Studio Photography, Livermore, California.

Hudson Bar and Books, with three New York locations and two in the Czech Republic, are sophisticated, upscale cigar bars. In this case, bar owners pay homage to an avant-garde past, when writers and poets sometimes visited pubs and stayed until dawn. The intellectual heritage of the West Village, home of the original Bar and Books, is evident at these establishments, with jammed floor-to-ceiling bookshelves. Intimate tables line the wall opposite the fully stocked bar, and the room converges into a back area with a U-shaped couch. The effect is comfortable, dark, and literary. Beer is served in frosted glasses, upscale spirits, such as whisky and Scotch, are served and each pour of wine is served in a clean wineglass, and water glasses are continually replenished. Red Square is a funky-chic Russian-themed bar in Las Vegas and was voted Best Bar in America by Playboy magazine. The décor gives a nod to the glory of Imperial Russia, and the bar includes an impressive caviar selection. The Red Square has been featured on the Food Network, on the Travel Channel, and in such magazines as W and Conde Nast Traveller. Before or after dinner, patrons can experience the exclusive private vodka vault and famous frozen icebar featuring more than 200 frozen vodkas and infusions, martinis, and Russian-inspired cocktails. They even supply Mink coats and hats for vodka tasting in the giant freezer. The King Cole Bar at the St. Regis Hotel in New York is legendary. It is said that Fernand Petiot, who created the Bloody Mary in Paris, perfected it here, where it is called “The Red Snapper.” The bar itself is a small rectangular room with towering ceilings and wide glass doors that open out onto the St. Regis’s marble floor patio restaurant and guests can gaze up at the striking Maxfield Parrish mural of Old King Cole that looms over the scene.

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The Purple Lounge at The Standard in Hollywood is an exclusive bar and lounge with dim purple lighting, hanging swing chairs, and “alluring dark nooks.” The Purple Lounge website says it caters “to an illustrious, cosmopolitan crowd.” The Green Mill Cocktail Lounge in Chicago brings jazz to the table—Dixieland, traditional, bebop, contemporary, progressive—played by such legendary figures as Von Freeman, Franz Jackson, and Wilbur Campbell, as well as young lions Kurt Elling, Eric Alexander, and Orbert Davis. Deep, smoky jazz sounds fill the club into the early morning hours as musicians continue jamming ‘til the early dawn. The Green Mill is “sophisticated informality” with an atmosphere patterned after Clark Monroe’s Uptown House in Harlem (as it was during the ‘40s). And, in the far corner of the bar, in all her alabaster glory, stands Ceres, Goddess of the Harvest, rechristened “Stella by Starlight” by house musicians. Stella was salvaged from the lower depths of The Green Mill, dusted off, and returned to compliment the authenticity of the art deco/art nouveau décor in the light fixtures and artwork, embellished with lavishly scrolled frames. Shades of Al Capone’s heyday are found in the wall memorabilia, too, as you enter, and in the famous booth where he and his henchmen could keep a cautious eye on both doors. Today, owner Dave Jemilo keeps his philosophy for a proper mix of down-to-earth friendliness and class, and maintains an authenticity of the ‘40s in service, price and music, perfected upon with the steady Sunday night performances of the internationally acclaimed Uptown Poetry Slam, which began at the Mill in 1986 and continues. Across the country in Seattle, Washington, the Palace Kitchen advertises itself as a “tavern with good food.” The décor is simple; the central feature is an enormous, horseshoe-shaped bar that gives guests a clear view of the kitchen and the employees at work (see Figure 3.4). Owner/chef Tom Douglas, whose Seattle culinary empire

FIGURE 3.4 The U-shaped bar at Seattle’s Palace Kitchen allows maximum guest interaction. Photo courtesy of the Palace Kitchen, Tom Douglas Restaurants, Seattle, Washington.

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has expanded to five different concepts in five Seattle neighborhoods says his intent at the Palace Kitchen was to convey the idea of a friendly, unpretentious employee dining room, where you can even see the dishroom employees at work. The bar is the primary focus here: the Palace Kitchen has twice as many appetizers as entrées. The sports bar has benefited greatly from technology—from bigger, better television sets, to satellite broadcasts that provide more than 100 channel choices. Voted the best sports bar in 2008, The Village Pourhouse in New York is a neighborhood watering hole with a tech-savvy event space. You can sip on exotic beer from Hong Kong while watching one of the 21 high-resolution televisions.

DÉCOR REQUIREMENTS Do the previous examples have anything in common? Sure they do! They prove that, indeed, anything goes when it comes to bar themes and décor. Whatever the specific attractions you decide on, they should be inviting from the very first moment. The atmosphere should convey a message of welcome, of festivity, of caring for customers. Some of this will come from you and your personnel, and some will come from your other customers—since, after all, most customers enjoy being among likeminded people who are having a good time. But the physical surroundings are equally important. They create the first impression, set the stage, and strike the keynote. The kind of décor you choose for your facility will be the visual expression of its mood. Décor includes the furniture and its placement; the wall coverings and artwork; floor, ceiling, lighting, and window treatment; plants and other accessories; special displays; and the front and back of the bar itself. Each element should be planned in relation to the total concept. In effect, it is the packaging of your concept; not only does it help to create mood, but it also merchandises your product. What kind of mood do you want to inspire? What does your research show about what is important to your target clientele? Do you want to impart a sense of spaciousness, relaxation, and restfulness—a place where people come to talk to each other without shouting; or are you after a noisy, crowded, stimulating atmosphere? Do you want to convey elegance, opulence, and luxury, or modest comfort and terrific value for the price of your food and drink? Soft colors and rounded shapes are restful; bright colors and bold patterns are stimulating. Mind the soundscape as well. This is what you want the place to sound like, both when full and not so full. Carpets, drapes, upholstered chairs, and fabriccovered walls can mute noise of all sorts, but it bounces off and might be amplified or distorted by tile and concrete floors, plaster walls and ceilings, and glass. High ceilings give a sense of space; low ceilings make a room seem smaller and more intimate. Ceilings that are too low and rooms that are too small can make guests feel claustrophobic. Soft lights and candlelight send messages of intimacy, romance, and intrigue. Bright and/or flashing lights are appropriate to noise, crowds, action, and excitement. Firelight is restful, dreamy, romantic, but be aware that fireplaces must meet stringent local fire codes and might have special insurance-company requirements, too.

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Luxury can be conveyed by the use of: 䡲 䡲 䡲

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Expensive fabrics, furniture, and accessories Museum pieces and art objects Dramatic effects, such as waterfalls, magnificent views, and murals by accomplished artists Gleaming silver and crystal Fresh flower arrangements Ice sculptures An elaborate wine list Tuxedoed waiters Expensive food and drinks Valet parking Attentive and highly professional service.

Terrific value can be conveyed by simple, and inexpensive but imaginative décor, good drinks at moderate prices, and quick, friendly service. Investors sometimes spend a considerable amount on décor to compete for certain types of customers or to build a certain image in a national or international market. If this is your situation, you’ll probably want to hire a professional interior designer who specializes in the restaurant field. Not all décor involves spending a lot of money; it does, however, always involve a great deal of thought and good taste. Paint, plants, posters, or art prints, for example, judiciously chosen and placed, to complement the furnishings and their groupings, the right lighting, and the right sound (or its absence)—all combine to create a mood. A few inexpensive conversation pieces can add to the fun. The trick to achieving a successful décor is to continually keep mood and clientele in mind, and pick colors, textures, shapes, furniture, and fixtures that mesh for a total, finished look. Work toward creating a style and mood that are not copies of a competitor’s and that are not built on a passing fad. Make sure to carry out your theme in your service, drinks, uniforms, and all of the small details. Otherwise, you’ll be sending your clientele a mixed message. Crystal chandeliers say one thing; shabby restrooms with no hot water say something else.

LAYOUT AND DESIGN Whether you are starting from scratch or remodeling, your first step is to think through your layout carefully to ensure that it jibes with the critical factors: customers, services, and atmosphere. To these essentials, add a fourth one: efficiency. Designers of bars face the continuous challenge of providing employees with a functional space in which to work quickly and accurately. Practical, daily bartending concerns include the ability to take orders, mix and garnish drinks, wash and dry glasses, handle cash, and restock supplies with limited effort and maximum productivity, all the while ensuring that the bar space is clean and attractive, makes customers feel comfortable, fits in with the rest of the décor, and stimulates beverage sales. Today bars also often

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include at least limited foodservice. Not surprisingly then, some hard choices must be made to bring bar design in line with budgets and a confined space. If you’ll be working with professionals, such as an interior designer for the “look” and furnishings, and a facilities designer for the bar equipment, plumbing, and electrical requirements, you will find it helpful to understand what they are doing. The best way to accomplish this is to visit other facilities that they have designed. In addition, you can study several major trade publications that include articles about effective bar design to keep up on trends.

Trends in Bar Design Increasingly, hotels and restaurants make use of their bar space for meal service. Even the bar itself has become de facto dining space: Bar tops are widened to accommodate table settings, and wait stations are set up to store dishes and flatware, both clean and soiled. An advantage of offering lunch or dinner at the bar is, of course, money; tips are better for bartenders and servers, and the average check is higher. However, this arrangement, especially if not well designed, splinters the attention of the bartender, requiring more multitasking, trips to the kitchen, and extra work. Customers who want just a drink instead of a full meal might feel less important as they “compete” with diners for service and bar space. From Europe comes the idea of the gastro pub, a bar that also offers world-class lunches and dinners. British pubs, with their picturesque settings and centuries of tradition, are remodeling for discriminating diners. No fish and chips here; instead, they offer gourmet menus with crystal stemware, starched linens, fireplaces, and pretty outdoor-dining patios when weather permits. The concept bar, where the goal of the décor is to whisk patrons away to new or exotic locales, became popular in the 1990s and continues to do well. The Elephant Bar, a California-based dining chain with its African-jungle theme, and Latinthemed bars that serve up salsa dance lessons as well as South American specialty drinks, are some examples. Another trend is participatory bars, where customers are part of the action, whether they play pool or video games or sing karaoke. On the nightclub scene design trends include lighter colors, to make the bar friendlier to women; more space for cool-down areas, where people can sit and talk if they prefer not to dance; and layouts that encourage eye contact and more social interaction between dancers and nondancers (this translates into fewer terraced levels to negotiate within the club). Upscale bars have shown a new vigor, with all the elegant touches of yesteryear: dark woods; comfortable, overstuffed furniture; art-deco motifs; and other classic touches. Nightclub menus are being expanded to offer more food as part of the ongoing effort to encourage responsible alcohol consumption. Patrons are drinking less and, in some cases, spending less. At the same time, they’re demanding better quality— they want an experience, not just an evening out. In a trend perhaps no one could have predicted, airport bars have received a boost in popularity since international terrorism reared its head in the September 11 attacks. Passengers have learned to cope with longer wait lines and late takeoffs, and

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FIGURE 3.5 La Bodega Winery has managed to create a relaxing, inviting atmosphere—even in busy DFW International Airport. Courtesy of La Bodega Winery, Dallas, Texas.

they have more time to spend in on-site pubs and eateries at airports. What used to be a generic bar with tiny, overpriced drinks and inattentive service has become a genuine attempt to provide a brief, comfortable oasis from the stress of traveling. Brandnamed national chains, such as Sam Adams’s Pubs and Wolfgang Puck Express, took the lead on this trend. Beer-making powerhouse Anheuser-Busch, now owned by international conglomerate InBev, also licenses a chain of airport pubs, called Budweiser Brewhouses and/or Budweiser Taprooms, in airports and sports stadiums. At the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, La Bodega Winery (see Figure 3.5) is successful in a 500-square foot retail space, selling 30 wines by the glass, gourmet snacks, and wines by the bottle to travelers passing through. Games on the bar scene—other than pool, pinball, darts, and video poker (where permitted)—now include video golf. In particular, Golden Tee celebrated its 20th birthday in 2009. Made by Illinois-based Incredible Technologies, America’s largest designer of coin-operated video games, Golden Tee is a realistic, simulated golf game now in its fifth generation. More than 100,000 machines are located primarily in sports bars, and an online tournament for true enthusiasts has a monthly purse of $250,000. “Weather conditions,” pin placement, and tee distance change daily in this three-dimensional game, and participants pay a few dollars to “play” 18 holes with computer-simulated cheering and even color commentary by golf “announcers.” Bar

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owners, who typically rent space to individual owners of the Golden Tee machines, say the addition of this sophisticated game to their entertainment lineup can increase bar business as much as 25 percent. Technology also is being employed at bars like Anna Liffey’s, an Irish pub in New Haven, Connecticut, where Wednesday is “Pub Games Night.” The giant video screen (on which international soccer matches are often broadcast) is converted to play Nintendo Wii games, Jenga, Connect 4 and more, and customers are encouraged to compete.

Basic Elements of Layout Certain facets of a bar start-up are universal: the amount of space available, the activities taking place in that space, the number of seats, the size of the bar (it must be large enough to hold equipment for the drink types you’ll offer), and the relationship of the bar area to other aspects of a larger facility, such as a restaurant, hotel, or club. Other layout and design needs and issues come into play: plumbing; refrigeration; lighting and other electrical requirements; ventilation, heating and air conditioning; health and fire regulations; local codes; and state laws and regulations, such as those requiring separate smoking areas and restroom facilities for physically disabled patrons. Last, but not least, comes profit: How can you make the most profitable use of the space available? The final layout emerges from the decisions you make regarding all of these factors. We will discuss them one at a time to explain the impact of each.

Available Space. The amount of space available to you for your layout includes not only square footage but also the shape of the area, the position of entry and exit(s), and whether you will be sharing space with dining, dancing, or live entertainment facilities. 䡲

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The square footage will set an outside limit on the number of customers you can serve at a time. It may also determine whether you’ll have seating at the bar or at tables, lounge style. The shape of the room is critical to the arrangement of the furniture and fixtures. Consider the three rooms shown in Figure 3.6. They are of the same square footage, but one is long and narrow, one is square, and one is L-shaped. The shape of the room also affects the number and arrangement of tables, the position of the bar itself for the best visual and psychological impact, and the bar’s size and shape. Room shape also influences the traffic flow for entry and exit and for service. And it certainly affects how you’ll share space with such activities like dining or dancing. Entry and exit require special attention because the relationship between the entrance and the bar will influence the movement of customers into the room and the way the room fills up. Do you want your customers to move immediately into

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Dance floor Bar

Bar Enter

Enter

Enter Bar

Bar Enter

Enter

Bar

Bar

Dance floor

Enter

Bar

Bar Enter Enter

Enter

Bar Dance floor

FIGURE 3.6 These rooms all contain the same square footage. Notice how the shape of the room affects the room arrangement.

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noise and conviviality? Do you want them to stop at the bar before going on to dine and dance? Will a crowd around a bar near the entrance block access both visually and physically, leaving the room beyond it empty? If the bar is associated with a restaurant, should it have a separate entrance or be part of the restaurant? Will it serve only as a holding area for the restaurant, or do you want it to be its own destination, with its own patrons? Sharing space with other activities takes careful planning. You must consider the amount of space each element (the bar, the activities, the furniture and fixtures) requires. You will probably want to measure everything and plot it to scale on a floor plan. Estimating the sizes of objects and spaces simply by looking at them is very difficult. An empty room usually looks smaller than it is. A room with furniture already in it is very difficult to picture accurately in a different arrangement. Although most empty dance floors don’t look big enough for more than three or four couples, “in action” they might accommodate many more. (People may bump into each other, but that’s part of the fun.) Stage areas for musicians and their instruments take up a surprising amount of space. If you plan to have live entertainment, you need to determine whether the available space is big enough to accommodate the sound, the area for the entertainers, and enough customers to support the undertaking. Is the space too big? Can you fill it? Consider how it feels to be in a half-filled room as opposed to being in a small place that is crowded with people having fun. You need to be sure that the space will function as you intend it to, while there is still time to change your plans. Set space priorities and guidelines. Then, whether you do the layout yourself or have a designer do it, there will be fewer problems and unwelcome surprises.

Activities and Traffic Patterns. Consider the movement of people in the room, as well as the reasons for their motion. In addition to bar service, you might need to accommodate dining, dancing, live entertainment, and/or the traffic of guests in a hotel lobby. You also must factor in the coming and going of the bar patrons themselves: entry and exit; visits to restrooms, telephones, and the coatroom; or just milling around. For an efficient layout, the space and direction of each activity must be accounted for, so that doors, furniture, and fixtures are placed for maximum efficiency. In particular, a good layout will establish efficient traffic patterns to and from the bar for table service, to and from the kitchen and service areas for dining service, as well as for customer entry and exit. The goal is to achieve an orderly flow, minimizing potential collisions and general chaos. The bar must also have easy access to storage areas; you don’t want the bartender sloshing a tub of ice through a throng of customers. Figure 3.7 shows good and poor traffic patterns for the same space. A good layout will also consider clientele, mood, and ambience. The position of the bar itself can boost liquor service or intentionally understate it. In a family restaurant, for example, you might place a service bar discreetly in the background, whereas in a singles cocktail lounge you might position an island bar in the middle of the room.

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Bar

Patrons

Entry

Servic

e

Restaurant

Se

rvi

Bartender

ce

st Re

Restrooms

ro om s

Bar storage

(a) Entry

Pa

tro

ns atro

P

Se

ns

rvi

ce

Bar s

Restroom

Restaurant

Servi ce

Restrooms

Bar storage

(b )

FIGURE 3.7 (a) A tangle of conflicting traffic patterns in a bar lounge. (b) The flow of traffic smoothed out by repositioning the entry and the bar.

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Furniture. Choose all furniture, and lay it out in relation to the total bar concept. Barstools and lounge chairs should look inviting and be comfortable. Chair designers say they can control the rate of customer turnover simply by the degree of comfort of the seat cushion, and the claim certainly makes sense. Today’s barstools come in all types of decorative styles, but no matter which you select, be sure to allow 24 inches of linear bar space for every stool at the bar. Some bars allow up to 30 inches, measured from the center of one barstool to the outer edge of the next. Looks are important, but don’t ignore the other functions that the barstools must support. Barstools work hard, and the home-use models are not sturdy enough to withstand the rigors of commercial use. The basic barstool choices are shown in Figure 3.8. They are: 䡲

䡲 䡲

FIGURE 3.8 There are hundreds of barstools, but only three basic types: the backless stool, the stool with a back, and the stool with a back and arms. Images

The backless barstool is a taller version of a counter stool, made by Thomas Verdos, Tevalia Design, Seattle, to fit beneath a counter. This is an important distinction, because Washington. barstools are 29–31 inches tall, while counter stools are only 24–26 inches tall and typically made for home use. You don’t want to order the wrong type. The 30-inch barstool allows the guest to “pull up” to a bar that is either 36 inches or 42 inches high. For a bar the backless stool is the least comfortable option, even with an upholstered seat, but some bar owners consider this an advantage because in a busy nightclub atmosphere, it discourages customers from “parking” on the same stool for long time periods. The barstool with a back, which is mandatory if comfort is a primary concern. The barstool with both a back and arms, which is an option only if there is sufficient room for guests to comfortably place their arms on the armrests without knocking into other guests, other barstools, or the bar itself.

Barstools can be made of high-impact plastics, wood (of varying types and qualities) and metal; seats and backs can be upholstered with cloth, leather, or plastic. Choose upholstery that feels good and is easy to clean, and check for sturdy stitching of the fabric to the barstool. Look for a suitable, comfortable footrest height. Footrests are also available in multiple finishes, such as brass and chrome. Be sure the barstools swivel, too. This feature is important because it enables customers to turn with ease to talk with people beside them. Barstools with backs can also be ordered with memory-retaining swivel seats, which means that the seat returns to a certain, standard position when a person gets off the barstool. Finally, for barstools and chairs alike, be sure that the ends of their legs or feet are rubber-coated, so they stay put and don’t scratch floors or snag carpets when they are moved. Of course, none of these little details will stand out to customers when the barstools are in use; rather, they will combine to create an overall impression of comfort and style, as seen in Chicago’s popular D4 Pub and Café (Figure 3.9). Lounge chairs should fit well around cocktail tables. The tables themselves can be small if they are to be used for only drinks, and in a busy bar you can crowd them somewhat, adding to the conviviality. Both the size and shape of tables and chairs are important elements in layout.

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FIGURE 3.9 The attractive, L-shaped bar is just one of the design features of the D4 Irish Pub & Cafe. Courtesy of D4 Irish Pub and Café, Chicago, Illinois.

Utilities, Codes, and Licensing Restrictions. When it comes to positioning the bar, plumbing is an important factor. Supply pipes and drains should not travel long distances because they are expensive to install. Also, the longer and more elaborate the plumbing connections, the more that can go wrong. If the space will include a kitchen, it is most efficient to coordinate plumbing for both. You must also think carefully about electrical requirements in relation to layout. In addition to lighting designed for mood and décor, underbar equipment has numerous special electrical needs. If you offer live entertainment, you have to plan an electrical supply for such items as amplifiers and speakers. All of these considerations will affect your general layout, making you think twice, for example, about putting the bar or the musicians in the center of a room. Heating and air-conditioning ducts and vents, “smoke eaters,” and air circulators are also layout issues in terms of their output, the space they occupy, and their visual effect. A ceiling fan, for example, must have a certain visual relationship to the furniture and fixtures below it. Local health and fire regulations often impinge on layout, especially in respect to exits and aisles. Similarly, health-department requirements regarding glass washing can influence the space requirements inside the bar, as well as the plumbing and electrical requirements. In some states and localities, requirements for liquor licensing can affect layout. Some prohibit open bars, so a restaurant must have a private club in a separate room in order to serve liquor. In other locales food must be served in the same room where liquor is being served.

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A few states require bar cabinets to be lockable, and require all liquor to be locked up at the moment that service is supposed to legally end for the night. Finally, remember that the room layout must accommodate persons with disabilities; they must be given equal access to public or commercial buildings, according to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). It requires wheelchair-accessible entrances, doorways, and restrooms for patrons and employees alike who may be disabled. Be aware that in some cities, building codes include these provisions, but in others, they do not. As a result it is dangerous to assume that if you present your plans and receive a building permit, the plans have also been approved for ADA compliance. It is smart to have the plans checked first by an architect or contractor who is knowledgeable about the ADA. The U.S. Justice Department and Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) enforce this law and can fine building owners for noncompliance. It is less expensive to design a building that is handicapped accessible than to retrofit one after a complaint has been filed.

THE BAR: SIZE, SHAPE, PLACEMENT Determining the size, shape, and placement of the bar itself is a twofold design problem involving décor and function. The size and shape of the bar, its appearance, and its position in the room are typically planned by the owner, architect, or interior designer, whose primary concerns are layout and décor. The working areas, where the drinks are mixed and poured, are planned by a facilities-design consultant or by an equipment dealer. Sometimes these professionals work together from the beginning, but too often a facilities designer or equipment dealer is called in after the bar has been positioned and its dimensions set, and must do the best job possible within the allotted space.

Selecting a Bar When you select your bar, avoid a straight-line, rectangular model in favor of one with corners and angles if possible. This automatically prompts guests to sit opposite each other and visit, instead of staring straight ahead at the backbar. Of course, although your imagination might be unlimited, in practice the layout possibilities are limited by your available space and your budget. Figures 3.10 and 3.11 show two bar designs by Sue Miller of Glastender, Inc., of Saginaw, Michigan; the latter for wine/ beer service. Abbreviations refer to pieces of equipment. Today’s possibilities include modular bar designs, which may cost more to purchase but have some built-in advantages. They are already outfitted for plumbing and electrical needs, and they are easy to maintain, remodel, or upgrade if necessary. The companies that design these ready-made bar units will also provide design and installation assistance. A common mistake in bar design is to assign space for it without factoring in the projected volume of drinks that will be served and how much space and equipment

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8'– 6"

IFC–24/24

DHSO–18

DWB–12

PT84–R6–(RRR/LLL)

DCBA–48 GT–18+2

REMOTE

MF24–SAF2

SWB–12–DW

Glass storage DBCR–18

SSR–42 CBA–42R

BSA–18

LDA–245

IFC–24/24

CBA–42R

20'

LDA–245

12'– 6"

17'– 8"

BSA–10

Glass storage

SSR–42

7'

DBGR–18

3'–17/8"

DBDB–35

Glass storage

12'–8" 15' FIGURE 3.10 A sample bar design. The letters and numbers on this plan (and in Figure 3.11) represent certain equipment models to be ordered. Courtesy of Glastender, Inc., Saginaw, Michigan.

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105

6'

NDPT72–L6–GSH(LRR/LLR)

1'–9 7/8"

2' GT–18+2 10'

SWA–12

SSR-36 DBGR–36

IFC–2424

IFC–24/24

ST36–SF

CBA–36

ST36–5F

CBA–36

SSR-36

14'

DBIN–36A TSA–48

SSR-48

Special 68 Thermostat For Red Wines

DHSB–12

TRASH

DBCB–18

IFC–24/24

IFC–24/24

3'

3'–6"

THE BAR: SIZE, SHAPE, PLACEMENT

FIGURE 3.11 A layout for a wine and beer bar.

Courtesy of Glastender, Inc., Saginaw,

Michigan.

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will be needed to meet that volume. Only after money has been spent building the bar and buying the equipment does the owner discover its inadequacies. A poorly thought out bar can cost more initially, limit profits, and cause daily frustration to those who work it. You will see why as we examine the bar in detail.

Parts of the Bar A bar is made up of three parts: the front bar, the backbar, and the underbar. Each section has special functions. Figure 3.12 shows these parts in profile, as though they were sliced through the middle, from front to back. The dimensions given are those of a typical bar of good, workable design. The length of the bar will vary.

36"

24"

24"

14"

Front bar Rail

Backbar Trim

Armrest

12"

Liquor, beer, soda mix, wine lines

Underbar

Speed rail

Bar die

42" 30" 5" Adjustable feet

Footrest

18"

4"

Masonry curb

FIGURE 3.12 The bar in profile, showing dimensions.

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The Front Bar. The front bar is the customer area, where drinks are ordered and served. The bar is typically 16 to 18 inches wide, with a surface that is alcoholproof, usually of laminated plastic. An armrest along the front edge, often padded, adds another 8 inches to its width. The last few inches of the back edge are usually recessed, and it is here that the bartender pours the drinks, to demonstrate liquor brand and pouring skill. This part of the bar is known variously as the rail, glass rail, drip rail, or spill trough. The vertical structure supporting the front bar, known as the bar die, is like a wall that separates customers from the working area. Seen in profile it forms a “T” with the bar, making a kind of table on the customer side, with the other side shielding the underbar from public view. A footrest usually runs the length of the die on the customer side, about a foot off the ground. On elegant mahogany bars of the 1800s the footrest was a brass rail, and underneath it every few feet were brass spittoons. The Prohibitionists made the brass rail a symbol of the wickedness of drink, along with swinging saloon doors and Demon Rum. The height of the front bar is 42 to 48 inches because this is a good, basic working height for most bartenders. This height also makes the front bar just right for leaning against with one foot on the footrest, in the time-honored tradition of the nineteenth-century barroom. All underbar equipment is designed to fit beneath or behind a 42-inch bar. A sit-down bar will have barstools tall enough so that customers can use the top of the bar as a table. The length of the bar will determine how many stools you will need since each stool is allotted a 2-foot length of bar. Barstools are designed so that their seats are high off the ground, so they typically have rungs for footrests; or the footrest of the bar is within easy reach of the customers’ feet. Even numbers of barstools make seating convenient for couples. The elements of the front bar—the surface, die, armrest, footrest, and stools—are part of your public’s perception of your establishment, so their look must be carefully planned in conjunction with the total décor.

The Backbar. The backbar has a dual function: as a decorative display area and as a hard-working storage space. No matter how tidy or cluttered, grand or humble, the backbar speaks volumes about a bar operation. Some people say it is the soul of the bar. It conveys an image of the establishment and showcases the kinds of beverages a patron can expect to be served there. It stimulates conversation, displays the wares, and can be used to post information, including prices, drink specials, the bar’s logo, funny signs, neighborhood flyers, or sports pools. (It is always smart to insist that anything posted on the backbar fit in with your own décor and standards.) The shiny splendor of bottles and glassware is usually reflected in a mirror, a tradition of the backbar. In the Old West, or at least in Old West movies, the mirror had another function: It showed customers at the bar whether anyone was coming up behind them, gun in hand. Today the mirror adds depth to the room; it also gives customers a view of others at the bar and elsewhere in the room. Bartenders sometimes use it, too, to observe customers without being noticed. The typical modern bar consists primarily of mirror, bottles, and glassware. Some people feel that a bar is just not a bar without these elements. There are functional reasons for the prominence

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of these elements, too: the liquor and glassware make up the bartender’s working supplies, and the backbar is a good place to display call brands as a subtle form of merchandising. Multiple facings are often used, which means that three or four bottles of a known brand are displayed side by side, reinforcing its popularity. White and brown liquors are alternated for visual effect or the backbar stock is rotated occasionally to showcase different brands. Sometimes the bartender simply organizes the backbar based on what he or she will need to have handy at the busiest times. Whatever the system the merchandising power of the backbar should never be underestimated. Fashions in backbar décor include stained glass, paneled or textured walls, murals, paintings, posters, wine racks, mood pieces, and conversation starters. The base of the backbar is likely to be allocated as storage space, refrigerated or otherwise. Otherwise, it might house special equipment, such as a glass froster, an ice machine, or a mechanical dishwasher. If specialty drinks are featured, the frozendrink or espresso machine will probably be on the backbar. The cash register is usually there, too, in a recessed space. However the backbar is used, it must be visually pleasing from top to bottom, since customers look at it, and it must coordinate visually with the décor of the room as a whole.

TIPS FOR MAINTAINING A PERFECT BACKBAR 䡲

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Keep the labels on your bottles facing out at all times. Replace any bottles with torn or crooked labels. Group your spirits by category: Scotch with Scotch, Bourbon with Bourbon, and so forth. Mixing up your inventory makes it more difficult for patrons to see what you offer and makes bartenders less productive. Check your inventory on a regular basis. Spirits that aren’t selling don’t belong on your backbar—or in your bar at all for that matter. If you have space, highlight special selections, such as a collection of single-malt Scotches or high-end liqueurs. To create impact, use multiple facings of premium spirits where possible, especially if you

feature a premium well. It shows your patrons that you believe in pouring the best. Use underlit glass shelving or bottle steps and spotlights to highlight your backbar display and create a bit of drama. Be sure that signage, promotional materials, and knick-knacks that you want to keep on your backbar all fit in with your décor and your image. Keep the backbar clean. Wipe down bottles, shelving, registers, and other equipment at least once a week, if not daily. If you keep open bottles on your backbar, make sure the pourers are clean as well. Making sure that all your pourers match also creates a clean, consistent look.

Source: Mike Sherer for Top Shelf Magazine.

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The Underbar. The underbar is usually the last section of the bar to be designed, after the front of the bar has been created. The underbar deserves the same degree of careful attention as the rest of the bar because it is where most of the equipment and supplies for the products you are selling must be arranged compactly and efficiently, to facilitate speed of service. Overall, your goal should be to design an underbar and backbar area that makes wise use of space, is as sanitary as possible, and is able to respond to consumer tastes and trends in drink preparation. Consider your clientele, their demographics, and their personal preferences when planning your underbar. The area where individual bartenders work is called a pouring station. It must have an individual supply of liquor, ice, mixes, glasses, blender, and garnishes, all within arm’s reach. Each pouring station also must have an ice bin and one or more bottle racks for the most-used liquors and mixes. (You will learn more about barrelated equipment in Chapter 4.) A supply of glasses may be placed upside down on a glass rail, on drainboards near the ice bin, on special glass shelves, in glass racks stacked beside the station, on the backbar, in overhead racks, or in all of these places, grouped according to type and size. The blender, and probably a mixer, may be placed on a recessed shelf beside the ice bin, while the garnishes are typically located on the bar top in a special condiment tray. Most operations use an automatic dispensing system for carbonated beverages. Such a system has lines running from bulk supplies (hidden within the underbar) to a dispensing head with multiple push-buttons. The system goes by several common nicknames: a handgun or six-shooter (it is aimed into the glass and buttons are pushed to dispense liquids), and a cobra gun (it has snaking lines that connect to the head). A cobra gun is needed at each pouring station. If the bar has an automated liquor dispensing system, the setup is similar. Dispensing systems will vary drastically depending on the situation. The needs of a beer concession stand in an athletic stadium, for instance, are quite different from those of a bar in a fine restaurant. In the former, it may not matter that the beer lines from keg to tap are long. But in the latter it would because line length affects the quality of the beer, and a connoisseur will notice the difference. The number of pouring stations at your bar will depend on the volume and flow of business. The bar should be designed with enough stations to handle the peak periods, and with the equipment needed to do it. Figure 3.13 shows the plan of a hotel bar (shown in greater detail in Chapter 4, Figures 4.2 and 4.3). Notice that three stations serve different areas: dining room, coffee shop, and bar lounge. When drinks are served from the main bar for table service, the bar must always have a pickup station, a section of the front bar near the pouring station where serving personnel turn in and receive orders and return empty glasses. The pickup station must be separated somehow from where customers sit and order. Otherwise, servers must elbow their way through the customers, in which case confusion reigns and spills occur. Furthermore, your profits might end up on the jacket of a celebrity who has just dropped in for a drink, or an cube ice might find its way down someone’s neck. The pickup station should be near a pouring station and the cash register. In Figure 3.12 you can identify two of the pickup stations (top right and bottom left) by the railings (M) that set them apart from customer seating areas of the bar. Another

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area of the underbar contains glass-washing equipment—here a three- or fourcompartment sink (I on the plan in Figure 3.12) with drainboards on both sides or, in some cases, a mechanical dishwasher. The underbar must also have provision for waste disposal and a hand sink (G on the plan). These are typical health-department requirements. Be aware that health departments are continually scrutinizing the sanitation procedures of bars. For example, rules may dictate where you store empty beer bottles if your operation recycles them. Together the underbar and backbar must provide enough storage for the day’s reserve supplies of liquor, mixes, wines, beers, ice, garnishes, and such nonbeverage supplies as bar towels, cocktail napkins, picks, and stir sticks. All of these items must be arranged so that access to them requires a minimum of movement. Movement is time, and time, as we all know, is money. Three feet is the customary distance between the backbar and the underbar because it accommodates the bartenders’ movements and the opening of storage cabinet doors. Cabinet doors must not be so wide that they block passage when open. Storage areas must be available to each bartender without interfering with another’s movements. You can order underbar equipment three ways. You can choose stock designs from manufacturers’ catalogs or websites, you can have custom equipment constructed to meet specific needs or spaces, or you can use a combination of both. In most cases, a few stock components are ordered, and a few pieces are custommade to fit precisely in the underbar area. The equipment is usually installed by a local equipment dealer. When you design the bar, make sure to get input from an equipment dealer or manufacturer. If you’re planning on serving special drinks, you will need to plan for the equipment they require. If you intend to have beer on tap, for instance, you must know to place the “standards” (faucets; Q in Figure 3.13) so that they are easily accessible to the bartender (but not to the customer!) You must also have refrigerated storage space for each keg, either at the bar or in a nearby storage area with lines installed for bringing the beer to the bar. For obvious reasons, the latter arrangement is more sophisticated than having kegs at the bar, but it requires that you install custom-engineered equipment to maintain beer quality. Frozen-drink dispensers, ice-cream equipment, and glass frosters also have special space requirements that must be designed into the overall bar scheme. You have plenty of design variations from which to choose: Your pouring station can be a bit larger and, as just mentioned, your beer kegs can be stored elsewhere with a system of remote lines and taps. If your local health department does not require a four-compartment bar sink, you can opt for a handy automatic glasswasher; you can also provide more room for bottle coolers if you decide to serve a wide selection of bottled beers. Whatever you choose to do, be sure to decide on your drink menu before you design your bar space. Give equal weight to form and function in the design process. Hidden but essential factors in underbar and backbar design are the plumbing and electrical needs of the equipment. Faucets, icemakers, cobra guns, and dishwashers all need a water supply. Sinks, refrigerators, glass frosters, ice bins, icemakers, dishwashers, and waste disposals need proper drainage. Some equipment may need special electrical wiring.

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111

COFFEE SHOP O

R

A C F E U

DINING ROOM

T T

T

T U

W A

KEY A Ice bin M B Bottle wells C Speed rail E Mixer F Blender G Hand sink H Glass froster I Glass sink J Drainboard M Railing for pickup station N Glass rail O Condiment tray P Hinged gate Q Beer standard R Cash register S Tiered liquor display T Refrigerated storage U Dry storage W Bottle chute

O

C F E G

N

C S H R Q P

J

I F A B

M

O

L

O

U

N

G

E

FIGURE 3.13 Floor plan of hotel bar. Station at top (A, C, O) serves coffee shop across corridor. Right-hand station (A, C, M, O) serves cocktail lounge and bar. Station at bottom (A, B) serves bar and pickup station (M, O) for dining room to left (U). Rear portions of underbar equipment are not visible in this view. Plan courtesy Norman Ackerman, Ackerman–Barnes Consulting.

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All equipment must be installed to enable ready access for repairs. To achieve this, the entrance to the bar is sometimes made large enough to accommodate the biggest piece of movable equipment in case it has to be replaced or repaired. On the other hand, the smaller the access, the more space you have available for equipment, so the bar entrance is usually designed as a hinged section of the bar top that lifts up (P on the plan). Repairs are made in place, or replacement equipment is lifted over the bar when necessary. Sometimes one end of the bar is left open, although this leaves the liquor supply more vulnerable to tampering and makes control more difficult. Another alternative is to install a doorway in the backbar.

The Bar Floor. Think about the bartenders’ comfort and safety when you plan the bar floor. They are on their feet for hours, and you want them to look fresh and feel good. The floor under their feet must have a nonporous surface, such as tile or sealed concrete, to meet sanitary-code requirements. Wood and carpeting are not acceptable. A tile or concrete surface is cold, hard, and slippery when wet. Also, keep in mind that as an evening wears on, ice cubes, beer foam, soapy water, debris from empty glasses, and broken glass might accumulate. There are ways to improve floor comfort and safety, but none is ideal. Slotted plastic panels allow spills to go down between the slats, to minimize hazards of slipping. But these panels must be taken up for cleaning, which is a nuisance, and if it isn’t done often they become stale-smelling and unsanitary. They are also hard on the feet. Rubber or plastic mats minimize slippage and are easy on the feet, but they also must be cleaned frequently.

Materials and Upkeep. A consideration that often escapes newcomers to the bar business is the ease of care of the furnishings and finishes, especially, for example, surfaces of counters, bar tops, and tables. Some learn the hard way that aluminum and nickel can be damaged by salt, or that stylish slate countertops absorb juices and wines and require periodic resealing. Plastics discolor or turn foggy when exposed to direct sunlight or cleaned with glass cleaners, while stainless-steel surfaces scratch easily, show fingerprints, and must be polished or buffed frequently. A great deal of extra work may be avoided with attention early in the design process to materials that are as functional as they are attractive under hard-working bar conditions. There are plenty of interesting options, including an artificial slate product called Fireslate, fiberglass, sealed and stained concrete, acrylic, and marble and more—but not all of them are suited for all purposes. Making the right decisions during the design process will prevent the need for expensive replacement of fixtures and furnishings that don’t perform as well as you had hoped.

Bar Size, Shape, and Position in the Room. From the front of the front bar to the back of the backbar, the overall depth of your bar should be about 8 feet (again, refer to Figure 3.13). Determine the minimum length of the bar from the inside, according to equipment needs. Then, determine additional length and shape from the outside, according to the number of customers you want to seat (if there are seats), the size of the room, and the overall design requirements. The inside factors are determined mainly by the kinds of drinks served and the number of pouring stations needed to meet peak volume. The outside factors involve your total concept, your clientele, your décor, and the available space.

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Unfortunately, the last consideration, the available space, is usually the tail that wags the dog. Often the available space is what is left over after everything else has been planned. Many times an inadequate bar space will limit what you can serve and how much, thereby decreasing your profits, or it might require expensive and complicated equipment solutions to problems that would be simple to solve in a larger space. The best way to proceed is to plan your drink menu first, with your clientele in mind. Figure carefully the volume you can expect at peak periods. Size your bar to accommodate space and equipment needs for those drinks in that volume, or have a specialist do it. Do not box yourself into a bar that is too small. If your facility is already built and available space is predetermined, it becomes even more critical to think through your bar design and equipment to make the most profitable use of the space you have. Again, your clientele and your drink menu are the logical starting points. You may, for example, have to choose between beer on tap and ice-cream drinks in frosted glasses. If you know your clientele, it is much easier to make the most profitable choice. Bars can be many different shapes: straight, curved, angled, horseshoe, round, square, or freeform. Shape, too, is a decision involving many factors: room size and shape, mood, décor, and function. Unusual shapes are tricky. Most underbar equipment is factory-made in standard sizes that might not fit an irregular shape. Custom work increases cost and sometimes does not work as well in action. It can also create maintenance and repair headaches. Usually a bar has its back to the wall, but in a large room, it might be the centerpiece or focal point: a freestanding square, round, oval, or irregular island, with stations facing in several directions and a backbar in the middle. Obviously, an island bar will have special design considerations. The backbar will be smaller and the front bar larger, and the underbar will be visible to the patrons. There might be special plumbing and electrical problems. The bar’s position in the room deserves as much consideration as its shape and size because it might affect both. Do you want it to be seen from the street? Do you want it to set the tone of your establishment or take second place to your foodservice, your bowling alley, or your dance floor? Consider the customers’ reactions as they enter the room. Crossing the room to get to the bar might be inhibiting. Some people may turn around and go back out rather than cross an empty room at 4 P.M. or, a couple of hours later, plow through crowds or thread their way through the lounge amid staring eyes. Usually the best place for the bar is near the door where customers can head straight for it. Make these kinds of decisions before you draw up any plans.

The Bar as Control Center. While a bar’s major function is the dispensing of drinks, it also serves as your control center; it is where you keep records of the stock on hand, the types and quantities of drinks poured, and their sales value. After each serving period, the sales record is checked against money received to verify that one equals the other. This leads to the most important piece of equipment in the bar: the cash register, or point-of-sale (POS) terminal, as it is called in this technological age. It is at the core of the control system by which management ensures that its liquor is sold to the customer with little or no “evaporation” en route. In some operations, the bartender also takes in the money; in others, this is done by a cashier at a separate register. In a large or busy establishment, each bartender may have a separate register, or bartenders may share a register that has a separate drawer for each one. In any

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case, a register must be close to each pouring station and the pickup station, so that a minimum of time and motion is lost. Since the register is usually within full view of customers, its placement also becomes an important design element.

Smaller, Specialty Bars. The term service bar refers to a bar that pours for table service only, usually in conjunction with foodservice. It does not serve customers directly; it deals only with filling drink orders brought by waitstaff. Usually a single service-bar station is enough to handle the volume, except in very large restaurants. Sometimes a service bar is part of the dining room, but more often it is out of sight, in which case it is small and has a simple design. Instead of a backbar display, it has room for bulk supplies of beer, mixes, and liquor stock, and there is no need to camouflage or hide ugly or noisy equipment. Mechanical dispensing systems are often used here instead of hand pouring, to increase speed and reduce liquor loss; at a public bar, there may be customer resistance to such impersonal methods. In terms of basics, however, a service bar is like any other bar. It has the same functions, uses the same kinds of equipment, and performs the same tasks of recording and controlling the pouring and selling of drinks. As such, it needs the same forethought to plan as any other bar. The same goes for the portable bar, a typical extension of a hotel’s beverage service where banquets, meetings, receptions, conferences, and conventions are being held. Portable bars give the hotel the flexibility to serve beverages on short notice anywhere on the premises, indoors or out. The typical portable bar ranges in length from 4 to 8 feet. Larger models can accommodate two bartenders working side by side, and often can hold sealed-in cold-plate units for dispensing chilled beverages. Some portable bars fold into 2-foot widths for easy storage, and most have 5-inch casters for rolling them into place, as well as locking brakes on the casters. Ice bins on portable bar units should have both a water drain for the inevitable melting that occurs and a sufficient reservoir to hold the runoff. Underbar storage should consist of removable, adjustable shelves. Speed rails (to hold liquor bottles) and storage cabinets are other desirable options. Look for a portable bar with a stainless-steel backsplash and side splashes, and a laminated top that cannot be stained by water or alcohol.

WORKING WITH A DESIGNER OR CONSULTANT A new generation of bar designers is making a reputation for itself. The group is, perhaps, personified by Dodd Mitchell, a talented young designer who is sought after for creating the ambience for dozens of bars, restaurants, and hotels. Mitchell, who has designed everything from airplane interiors to women’s lingerie, received no formal design training and learned his trade while working as a set designer in Hollywood. His hallmark in hospitality projects is the use of natural materials, lighting, and materials that flatter the customers (who doesn’t want to look prettier, thinner, or younger when they go out on the town?), and a keen focus on the service element of hospitality (i.e., how long does it take a hotel guest, anywhere on the

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property, to receive excellent room service?) Mitchell has been somewhat controversial for his tendency to borrow liberally from other designers’ good ideas, but no one can argue with his success. As of this writing, recent Mitchell projects include Dolce in West Hollywood, Cabo Azul in Cabo San Lucas, Mexico, and the Kobe Club in New York City. Plenty of expertise is available to help you plan the physical environment of your facility. Your first challenge is to sort out who you really need. Your options are described in the following sections.

Consultants. At one end of the range is the food-facilities consultant firm that will do the entire job for you, from carrying out detailed market and feasibility studies, to developing a concept that will sell to your clientele through completion of the job. Many consultant firms offer a full spectrum of design services, including architects, interior designers, graphic artists, and foodservice-facilities designers who specialize in kitchens and bars. Other consultant firms have only some of those skills within their firms but can put together a whole design team for you by subcontracting out to other specialists. Consultants are typically used on projects for which a sizable investment has been made. The right consultant will make you money in the long run by doing the most appropriate, efficient, and profitable job. Many food-facilities consultants also accept small jobs. You can find them listed in the Yellow Pages, or you can write to their professional organization, Foodservice Consultants Society International (FCSI), which offers planning, design, and management consulting services in this specialized field. Members must have 10 years of experience and must pass critical reviews of professional competence. For bar design the most specialized service a consultant has to offer is the design of the space inside the bar by a facilities designer. This specialist will identify the equipment you need to serve your drink menu and lay it all out for maximum efficiency and economy. Facilities designers’ knowledge is different from that of interior designers and architects, especially regarding code requirements, the equipment available, and typical problems and solutions. These designers often work closely with interior designers and architects, however, and should be brought into the picture before the size and shape of the bar are finalized. If a facilities designer puts your bar project out for bid, you’ll be given a choice of equipment from several companies. You might get a better bar for less money than if you tried to put it together yourself or had a restaurant supply house do it using only the equipment lines it carries.

Interior Designers. The interior designer who specializes in restaurants is trained in the aesthetics of this particular type of design, and an experienced interior designer will be familiar with restaurant design trends and with the commercial furniture, fabrics, and other materials available. This type of designer will typically do your space planning (layout); select your furnishings; design your floors, ceilings, walls, window treatments; and plan your lighting, coordinating the entire design to fit your overall concept and supervising all installations. When choosing an interior designer,

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you must focus on the right kind of experience. Designers who have done only residential work or other types of commercial establishments might not understand the very specialized design needs of bars and restaurants.

Choosing Design Assistance Shop around before choosing a designer or consultant. Find a bar or restaurant that you think has been particularly well designed. It doesn’t have to reflect your kind of concept or attract your kind of clientele; it simply has to be well done in terms of its own purpose and concept. Ask who designed it, then find out what else that person has designed and visit as many of those places as possible. If they are all on target, go ahead. If not, do some additional exploring until you find someone who does the kind of job you are looking for, consistently well. As with any other profession, different designers will have reputations and preferences for different types of work.

Working Arrangements. Consultants and designers work on contract, which is advantageous to you and to them. Typically, you will pay a retainer, a standard “starting fee” or percentage to begin the job. Some interior designers will work on the basis of a design fee plus a commission on the furniture and materials you buy. Others will do a design on an hourly fee basis and let you carry out parts or all of it yourself. Whatever your investment, be sure the contract spells out clearly the scope of the job, the fees to be paid, and the various stages of the project at which payment is to be made.

Smaller-Scale or Remote Projects. What if you have only a limited budget or want to open in a small town or remote area where specialists are not available to you? Specialists will go anywhere for the right money, but you’ll have to pay their travel expenses. You can also get help from dealers, restaurant supply houses, commercial furniture dealers, and the like. Investigate as many as you can. Some of the help will be good, because many facilities designers began their careers designing in restaurant supply houses. Some of the help, however, will be no better than what you could do yourself if you planned carefully. Be aware that most, if not all, recommendations from these businesses will be limited to the brands and products they are selling. You might find a local interior designer who is willing to work with you on an hourly basis. Or you might consult an art teacher to help you with design and color coordination. Assistance might also be available through manufacturers’ representatives. Of course, you yourself have a talent for design. More often, though, people who have the operational know-how focus on the product, the staff, and getting the money together, and they neglect the physical ambience. However you decide to cover this base, keep in mind that in today’s market, the bar-restaurant is part of the entertainment business, and the physical setting is at least half the story; where competition is keen, it might be the whole story—your identity. If you do decide to go it alone, opt for a simple, clean look. Don’t clutter it up or try for pseudo-sophistication. Today, the clean line is sophisticated; it is currently one of the major design trends.

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CHECKLIST OF BAR-DESIGN ESSENTIALS Whether you hire a designer or design your bar yourself, define your needs and wants clearly. The more information you can give a designer and the clearer your own goals, the better the result and the easier the collaboration. The following is a checklist of basics you should decide on before you meet with a consultant or designer or take the important next steps on your own:

Target clientele Services to be offered Overall concept The competition Projected volume of business (number of seats, turnover, drinks/patrons per day, days open, annual gross income)

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Types of beverages you’ll serve Size and shape of bar area (an architect’s plans for an existing structure if you have them) Activities to take place in bar area Relationship of bar to dining and service areas (kitchen, storage) Existing décor, equipment, furniture, and fixtures you expect to keep Licensing, zoning, health, fire, and building code requirements Time limitations Budget limitations (This is a must before you consult anyone else, unless you are hiring a consultant only to give cost estimates for the job.)

SUMMING UP The first step for turning a building, room, or space into a popular and profitable bar is determining your target clientele. The next step involves choosing the products and services you will offer to this clientele, or market segment. The third step is defining a unifying concept with a special character or identity. This is more than a signature drink or clever advertising tagline; it is the components that, together, will create the bar’s energy and mood. Next, you must study the market by visiting the other bar businesses in the neighborhoods you are considering, as well as other bars with similar clientele, prices, or concepts. Choose a location on the basis of the market study, then determine the feasibility of your project for that location. Only then will it be time to deal with the physical facility. The goal is to make it an environment that attracts the desired clientele, gives them pleasure, and makes them want to come again. Décor is a large factor in creating this environment. Color, light, arrangement of furniture and fixtures, efficient use of space, and the sounds to be heard in the room all contribute to décor. The bar should be designed from the inside out, so to speak, beginning with the drink menu. Then, décor should be developed in partnership with functional needs. You will also need to accommodate disabled patrons and employees, to meet the requirements of the ADA. The bar itself should be designed based on the types of drinks that you’ll serve, since some require special equipment, such as blenders. The overall appearance of

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the backbar area is another consideration. Will it be packed with bottles or sleek and uncluttered? Will it be used mostly for storage or for show? Try to make the most profitable use of the limited space at and behind the bar, and take care to choose fixtures and finishes that will be sturdy and stain-resistant. Bar furnishings work hard; cleaning them should be as easy as possible. Enable traffic patterns of servers and customers to flow smoothly; people should not have to “cross paths” too often, for safety reasons. If entertainment is part of the concept, allow adequate room for it in the design for, perhaps, dance floors or a stage. Carefully plan the locations of utilities (water, power, air vents). In large rooms, where ancillary bars (portable bars or service bars) are part of the setup, hire a designer or consultant to help with the initial plans, or try it yourself.

POINTS TO PONDER 1. Why is it so important to design the physical environment of a bar with a particular type of customer in mind? 2. In a few words describe the colors, lighting, sound level, and types of furnishings you might use to set the mood in (a) a casual, family restaurant that includes liquor sales, (b) a Latin dance club, and (c) a cocktail lounge in a prestigious resort hotel. 3. What does the term market segment mean? Why is this concept important in developing a plan for a new bar? 4. What should you look for when making a detailed study of other bars in your market area? 5. Do singles bars still exist, or is this a long-dead generalization in your area? In your view, what would make a bar a singles bar? 6. Which of the successful bars described in this chapter would be most successful in your local area? Which bars would not do especially well in your market? Explain why. 7. In Figure 3.5, how does the overall shape of the room affect (a) arrangement of furniture and fixtures, (b) number of people accommodated, and (c) feasible activities? Can you improve the layout by changing the entry or the size, shape, or location of furniture and fixtures? 8. When designing the bar itself, why should you start with your drink menu? 9. In your particular bar, what do you think the backbar should “say” about your business? 10. What is the difference between an interior designer and a facilities designer? What are the particular skills and expertise of each? Do you need both?

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TERMS OF THE TRADE

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TERMS OF THE TRADE Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) backbar bar die cobra gun (handgun, six-shooter) concept bar front bar gastro pub image

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market segment multiple facings participatory bar pickup station portable bar pouring station rail (glass rail, drip rail, spill trough) service bar underbar

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A CONVERSATION WITH . . . TOM TELLEZ Owner Wallace and Hinz to work creating and installing bars in all 50 states and 20 foreign countries, both commercial and residential.

He’d been a park ranger and a firefighter, and worked on an ambulance crew—but since high school, Tom Tellez had taken on side jobs in carpentry. He majored in science at Humboldt State University, where he also took some business and management courses. When he learned that custom bar builders Wallace and Hinz were hiring, he applied. In 10 years, he had worked his way up, from sander to production manager. “It was the late 1990s,” he recalls. “The company was making a lot of money—and I was doing really well, too. But close business associates kept saying, ‘You really should think about going out on your own, just doing installations.’ And I did that for about four years. “My plan had always been to own several, closely related businesses and, as I was writing a business plan and working with someone on it, we discussed what we thought at the time was a hypothetical situation: What if Wallace and Hinz came up for sale? Sure enough, the opportunity came up within a year, and I bought the company.” That was in 2004. Today, from its Northern California workshop in Blue Lake, Wallace and Hinz has put its design and millwork skills

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Q: So, you can relate to what new bar owners go through. A: The stresses? Oh, you bet! There’s a look we see in bar owners, and I’ve even captured it in pictures. At first, their hopes are high and the money’s flowing and the architects are designing this great concept. But when it gets close to opening day, that’s when the finish guys come in, like us. By that time, they’re stressed out. They’ve ordered their equipment and there are job overruns and delays because of permitting processes. When we come in, we’re looking at owners who may have seen several weeks of sleepless nights. We see it all the time. They have that distant look—they can’t keep their attention on you, because they’re worried about something else. Q: At what point does the bar design come into play in a new place? I always thought it was one of the first things to be decided on, because it’s such an integral part of the concept and the space. A: It should be! But you wouldn’t believe how many times we’ve had people call and say, ‘We need a bar in three weeks.’ They don’t realize what goes into building a bar. It’s not like building a cabinet or a staircase, or putting in a floor—there are so many electrical requirements and plumbing needs, and drainage in the floor. There are codes to deal with, as well, and quite often, a lot of the design depends on whatever the local building or health code requirements are.

Q: Do the codes vary widely? A: They do, in terms of construction, ADA requirements, and specifics by area—here in California, we have earthquakes, Florida has hurricanes, and so on. California is the strictest by far, so we’ve learned that if we just build everything to California codes, it will pretty much satisfy the rest of the country—even the rest of the world!

Q: Give us some examples of the effort that goes into building a bar—something that, when a person looks at the finished bar, they might not have any idea how much thought or work went into it. A: Well, our needs from bars have changed over the years, but some people are still designing them in the old style, when bars were just for men. You walked up to the bar and stood there, put your foot up on a box or pole, and you’d have your drink and spit if you wanted. Now, both men and women are customers, and we sit and often eat at the bar—and there’s no spitting! I noticed in a design magazine recently that a company had won an award for a bar—but when I looked at the drawings and photo of it, the first thing I thought was, ‘Oh no! That’s one uncomfortable bar.’ It had only about a six-inch overhang from the bar die wall—that’s not deep enough—and a wide armrail. To eat at that bar, a person would have to lean so far forward that they wouldn’t be happy with it. We often design bars today with no armrail—it’s not the traditional look, but it’s better able to serve the dining needs. In the backbar area, a bar that is too deep, from the front of the bar to the backbar refrigeration, doesn’t work—the bartender has to take too

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many steps. If it’s too narrow, that doesn’t work, either—you don’t want to stop the workflow every time someone has to open the refrigerator door to pull out a beer. Q: Have the new electronics—the POS stations and computerized ordering systems—affected bar design? A: Yes, and it’s nice because not having the big cash register gives us a lot more room to work with. We do have to provide for many more electrical needs, electrical chases within the bar for all the cables, things like that. Electrical requirements are huge now—for POS systems, for lighting, for television sets. More bars have espresso machines now, too, and you have to provide more power for them. Even the most sophisticated bars built 20 years ago, I look at today and see how outdated they are. For example, just look at how the depth of a TV set has changed. We used to build these huge, deep TV cabinets to hang above bars—we called it the Sports Bar design. We don’t need to do that anymore. TVs are available as mirrors, that are framed and can sit behind the backbar. When the TV is off, it looks like a typical backbar mirror—but on game day, the TV is on and the mirror “disappears.” Q: What about all the new storage technology, the remote tap lines and refrigerated wine cabinets and so on—don’t they create some design challenges? A: Yes, and the bar owners do have to know what they’re serving in order for us to incorporate those needs into the design. They have to know who their customers are. If you’ll have more men as customers, you will generally serve more beer; if more customers are women, you’ll serve more wine—and more white wine, which affects your refrigeration needs. Q: If someone wanted a vintage bar, just for the history and fun of it, or if the style fit

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their concept—what are the limitations? A: The older bars were loaded with drawers, and those just aren’t practical anymore. Also, refrigeration was built in place—they’d put up some walls, insulate it, put in a motor to cool it and run Freon through it. Now, we order refrigeration equipment on the Internet, build the bar to its specifications, and we often don’t even see the underbar refrigerators until we get to the site for the installation. Q: What are the trends in bar design today? A: There’s a big push to reduce energy costs and consumption, both in lighting and refrigeration. Good lighting can change the whole mood of a bar. One example we’re seeing is that bottle designs have changed and everybody wants their backbar bottles lit. Some look best with white lights; others look better with red or blue lights. So, there’s a race to provide different colors. We have a lighting package with “RGB”— that’s red, green, and blue—and they dissolve and create other colors. Lighting can give an otherwise very traditional bar a hot, contemporary new look—or it can make a bar with a metallic finish look futuristic. Lighting is becoming as big an industry as bar building, and I love it! Lighting can even be installed under the bar top in the front so that, where your barstools are, there’s a nice, soft light that might constantly be changing colors. You have a footrail at the bottom that used to be brass but quite often is now chrome, and it also picks up the light. It’s very subtle and looks great—and it allows people to see the bar die wall, which is what so much time and money is spent on but quite often was hidden below the bar top. Now, you can see it. There are some great new materials, too. We can use new types of plastics that look just like alabaster for the bar top, that can be underlit. There also are interactive bar tops that are touch-screen. Several

companies are doing this now— some use a plastic or glass top with cameras underneath that shoot lasers up. Some are touch-screen like an iPod or computer monitor. There are infrared lights stored in the cabinet below that can “read” what’s going on, on the bar top. So, as an example, you can put your glass down on the bar and— say the sponsor is Audi, the car maker—the light sensors will pick up your glass and little Audi cars will drive around your glass! Or you can program a game of Pong, and two people can sit right at the bar and play Pong on the bar top with their fingers. Eventually, you’ll be able to order food on the bar top, place your own order from a menu that is a computer screen—and you’ll be able to swipe your credit card, right on the bar top. Q: What do bartenders tell you they want in a bar? A: Boy, that is a tough crowd to please! All our salespeople have bar experience. If they don’t, I know a bar owner who trains them and lets them work for a while. Probably the biggest request lately is for glass storage. Storage is the area that gets the least attention, but it’s so important. We have to constantly ask them, “What about your storage? Have you taken that into account?” As their business grows, they come back all the time and say, “We need more shelf space.” Ergonomically, there’s a lot involved in making the space comfortable for a bartender. They need to be able to do their jobs while taking the fewest number of steps. Q: How about some advice for hospitality students? A: I think business management courses are important, knowing how to manage money and inventory. And always remember that, in this business, you are dealing with alcohol. In some cases, people who work in bars have problems with alcohol and you have to understand

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that. I’m not saying don’t trust your people, but I have seen bar owners who have learned some hard lessons about human nature. So, just be smart about it and know how to really watch your numbers closely. Q: Do you have any advice for new bar owners? A: Yes. Write a good business plan. It’s what successful people do; they

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set goals and a budget. You know you’re probably going to go over budget, because you can’t possibly plan everything, but do plan for everything you can think of—and then take that budget and double it. I’d also suggest that they have another bar owner look at it, someone who’s already in the industry. Owning a bar is very challenging—but it’s an exciting business, and it is fun. And

when somebody puts the right package together, they can find great success.

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CHAPTER 4

BAR EQUIPMENT

R

ay Foley, long-time bartender and creator/publisher of Bartender magazine, published a no-nonsense list of “50ⴙ Ways to Be a Better Bartender” in the Summer 2008 issue. There’s plenty of good advice for getting along with coworkers and customers and doing the job professionally, but the list also includes such equipment-related gems as: “If you value it, take care of it.” “If you don’t know how to operate it, leave it alone.” Foley understands the importance of a well-stocked bar, which means more than just the types of liquor in the well. There is a list of necessary tools and equipment to produce any drink menu—and the limitations that incorrect equipment choices, improper maintenance, and space constraints can impose on that drink menu can be formidable and frustrating for the folks behind the bar. It is just as important for the prospective bar owner to talk with bartenders about how to set up and maintain their workspace as it is to discuss these concerns with interior designers and equipment dealers. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the basic equipment essential to any bar, as well as the alternatives that can be used to meet a wide variety of needs. THIS CHAPTER WILL HELP YOU . . . 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲

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Plan a complete pouring station. Choose among various methods of measuring and pouring liquors. Choose among various methods of pouring carbonated mixers. Determine the kind of ice needed for a given bar and the size of the ice machine. Install the required equipment for washing glasses. Provide for the special needs of draft-beer service. Determine the space needed for refrigeration, dry storage, liquor stock, and glassware. Assemble the hand tools and equipment needed to mix and serve drinks and prepare garnishes. Select glassware appropriate to the drinks to be served. Choose a point-of-sale (POS) system that works well for your operation.

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n some Old West saloons, the bartender simply set the bottle on the counter and customers poured their own whiskey, neat. It was not until the 1860s that competition prompted some entrepreneurs to outfit their saloons with mirrored backbars, ornately carved wooden bar structures, and brass rails. By the mid-1800s, hotel bars were serving mixed drinks, often with ice that was scraped, chipped, or pounded from large cakes transported from frozen lakes or rivers. By 1890, a hotel might have had its own ice machine, which could make a large block of ice in 15 hours. Today’s ice machines can turn out hundreds of pounds of perfect cubes per day; bartenders can serve frozen drinks by the gallon with the touch of a button, and orders for those drinks may come in on a computer screen or printer. In short, every aspect of the bar business has been transformed by innovation and technology. The downside to this, however, is that today’s bar owner faces endless choices and could be tempted to spend a small fortune on specialized equipment, glassware, and gadgets. Which of these “improvements” makes a better drink? Impresses the customers enough to keep ‘em coming back? Improves the bottom line? Sometimes, it’s hard to say. So, in this chapter, we get down to basics: What absolutely belongs behind the bar—and what are the fun extras that you might be able to live without?

UNDERBAR AND BACKBAR EQUIPMENT

FIGURE 4.1 The National Sanitation Foundation International seal of approval. Courtesy NSF International, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

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Several interrelated components of the pouring station each require some portion of square footage: beverage dispensing, beer dispensing and storage, ice making and storage, and glass washing and storage, as well as a blender, bar tools, a cash register or (in most bars) POS terminal, and a printer. As a general rule, plan to spend $1,000 per linear foot of bar to outfit it with equipment. With the exception of the POS system components, all equipment must meet local health-department requirements, which typically follow the sanitation standards set by National Sanitation Foundation International (NSFI). Equipment meeting these standards carries the NSFI seal, shown in Figure 4.1. The major pieces of underbar equipment have stainless-steel surfaces. This makes them durable and easy to clean and sanitize. Stainless steel stands up to the harshest chemicals, yet looks good and can be polished to an attractive sheen. Work surfaces supporting underbar equipment are a standard 30 inches high, with a depth of 16 inches to the backsplash at the rear. Units from the same manufacturer fit side by side and give the appearance of being continuous. Each piece of equipment either stands on legs that are 6 or more inches high, for access to plumbing and ease of cleaning, or is flush with the floor. The legs have bullet feet (tapered, to resemble bullets), again, for easy cleaning. All these features are NSFI standards. The feet are adjustable to accommodate uneven flooring. Figures 4.2 and 4.3 show the underbar and backbar of the hotel bar shown in Chapter 3, Figure 3.11. They serve the hotel’s cocktail lounge, dining room, and coffee shop from three stations. The station at the center of Figure 4.2, where you see ice

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KEY A Ice bin B Bottle wells C Speed rail D Handgun for soda system E Mixer F Blender G Hand sink H Glass froster I Glass sinks J Drainboard K Glass brushes L Waste dump M Railing for pickup station N Glass rail O Condiment tray P Hinged gate Q Beer standard S Tiered liquor display T Refrigerator storage U Dry storage V Coffee warmer W Bottle chute

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A

L F

C

E

N O

FIGURE 4.3 The backbar of hotel bar in Figure 3.13.

B

D

M

P

S

Q R

L

M N

O

T T

R

O

U

L

KEY A Ice bin B Bottle wells C Speed rail D Handgun for soda system E Mixer F Blender L Waste dump M Railing for pickup station N Glass rail O Condiment tray P Hinged gate Q Beer standard R Cash register S Tiered liquor shelves T Refrigerator storage U Dry storage

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bins, bottle wells, and condiment tray, is the pouring station used to serve customers seated or standing at the front bar; it also is used as the pickup station for cocktail waitresses serving the lounge. In the bottom right in this figure, where you see a second condiment tray on the counter, is the pickup station for the dining room, seen from the waiter’s side. This station also is used to serve customers seated or standing at the bar. The third station, in the top left, serves the coffee shop. It is also shown from the waiter’s side in the bottom right of Figure 4.3. All three stations are set up in the morning, and a single bartender works from all three, according to where the calls for drinks come in. Two bartenders are on duty for the busy late-afternoon and evening periods. Serving personnel garnish the drinks at the pickup stations; notice the condiment trays on the bar top (O in both figures). A shelf below on the server’s side holds ashtrays, napkins, and other server supplies. Railings (M) set these pickup stations off from customer use. There are also return stations for used glasses; notice the waste dumps below (L).

Equipment for Mixing Drinks Each of the stations in Figures 4.2 and 4.3 is outfitted with the following equipment: 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲

Ice chest and ice bin (A) Containers for bottles: bottle wells (B)—and speed rails (C) Handgun for dispensing soft drinks (D) Mixer (E) and blender (F) on recessed shelf Glasses: overhead, on the backbar, on drainboards, almost anywhere there is room

The centerpiece of any pouring station is an ice chest or ice bin (A), with or without bottle wells (B), usually with a speed rail (C) attached to the front. This piece of equipment is variously known as a cocktail station, cocktail unit, or beverage center, or colloquially, as a jockey box. Figure 4.4 shows a complete cocktail station. Its centerpiece is a 30-inch ice chest with a sliding or removable cover. The front of the unit is a 3½ foot bottle rail (speed rail), with a shorter hands-on rail on the front. On the left of the ice chest is a double row of condiment cups, used to hold garnishes, which are chilled by the ice. Often such equipment has bottle wells rather than condiment cups; they are used to keep juices and prepared mixes cold. On the right-hand side of the unit is a blender station, essentially a recessed shelf for the station’s blender and mixer with a special dump sink and faucet (behind the machines). A glass shelf and a towel rack complete the unit. (You can never have enough superabsorbent, cotton bar towels to wipe up spills.) Figures 4.2 and 4.3 display all of these elements in slightly different configurations at the three pouring stations. In addition to bottle rails on the cocktail stations, there is a double rail on the hand sink. Not shown in any of these pictures is another type of ice chest with a divider, which enables a station to have both cubed and crushed ice. A speed rail typically contains the most frequently poured liquors (usually Scotch, Bourbon, or a blended whiskey, as well as gin, vodka, rum, tequila, and brandy). The standard variety changes with the area and the clientele. The liquor supply at a bartender’s station is known collectively as the well, and the brands used there are called well brands, house brands or pouring brands. These are the brands that the

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FIGURE 4.4 A complete cocktail station.

Courtesy of Glastender, Inc., Saginaw,

Michigan.

house pours when a drink is ordered by type rather than by brand name. Popular call brands, brands customers “call for” by name, vermouths, a couple of bottles of house wines, and the current favorites in liqueurs are also set up within easy reach. Additional liquors—more call brands, liqueurs, premium brandies—are typically displayed on the backbar. Many bars have tiered liquor shelves containing reserve supplies as part of the backbar itself, such as (S) in Figure 4.3.

Dispensing Beverages At each station of the bar is the cobra gun, which dispenses the carbonated mixes (see Figure 4.5). It consists of a head with a nozzle and pushbuttons that deliver plain water and carbonated mixes (one per button), such as club soda, tonic water, soft drinks, and Collins mix—whatever half-dozen you choose. Behind the scenes are bulk supplies of concentrated syrups and a tank of carbon dioxide (CO2) under pressure. Syrup lines run from each syrup supply to the underbar and through an ice-cold plate on the bottom of each ice chest, made especially to quick-chill them. The CO2 line goes to a motor-driven carbonator under the ice chest, where the CO2 is mixed with filtered water. A carbonated water line then runs from the carbonator through the cold plate, as does a line with plain filtered water. Finally, all of the syrup and water lines run through a flexhose, which is flexible metal hose, to the head of the gun. Here, the syrup mixes with carbonated water in a 5:1 ratio at the touch of the proper button, or plain chilled, filtered water is dispensed. Together all of this is known as a postmix dispensing system because the soda is mixed at the time of service. There are also premix systems, in which the complete beverage is supplied in bulk containers that have already been mixed at the manufacturing plant. In a premix system, a separate supply of CO2 is needed to propel the product from the container to the dispensing head. The premix lines from the bulk supplies are run through ice or a cold plate to cool the product. A good postmix or premix drink should be cooled to between 37 and 42°F. in order for it to maintain good carbonation. Premix systems are seldom used in today’s bars, with the exception of portable bars for special-occasion

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use. Because postmix systems are far cheaper per drink (about two-fifths the cost) and are much more compact (about onefifth the size) than premix systems, they are generally the better choice. You will want to establish and maintain high-quality standards for your carbonated beverages. Doing so is a way to control their costs and to ensure that the drinks made with them will be satisfactory to customers. Four primary factors are involved in dispensing carbonated beverages: 䡲

Water quality: Carbonated drinks are about 80 percent water, not even counting the ice that may be put into a mixed drink. If the water does not taste good, neither will your beverages. Filtered water is a requirement in most areas. Figure 4.5 Handguns for a Soda Ingredient temperature: Water needs to be very cold to System. Photo Courtesy of Wunder-Bar make good soda; otherwise, it melts the ice in the drink too Automatic, Controls, Inc., Vacaville, California. quickly. The optimum temperature is close to the freezing point of water (32°F), and the chilling equipment in your system must be sufficient to provide this. Keep in mind that heat accelerates the aging process in carbonated drink syrups and mixes. As a result, it is important that these items be stored in cool areas, ideally at temperatures that do not exceed 65°F., and where they are protected from direct sunlight. Mix ratio: Correctly proportioned drinks contain the right amounts of syrup, water, and CO2—and no more. Any variation will affect the taste of the drink. You should regularly taste-test each and every liquid that comes out of your cobra gun. Amazingly, few bartenders remember to do so until a customer complains, “My drink is flat!” Smell the liquid, as you would a fine wine; sip a bit of it, then hold it in your mouth to get the full impact of both flavor and carbonation. Carbonation: A good carbonator provides just the right amount of fizz to the product. This piece of equipment must be sized to your bar’s overall drink volume, so there is no fluctuation in the amount of carbonation during peak demand periods. Also, liquids in improperly sealed or stored CO2 containers can lose their effervescence; they should be stored at cool temperatures.

Neither a premix nor a postmix system comes ready-made. To assemble a postmix system, you must purchase the gun and carbonator from one manufacturer; the cold plate is part of the cocktail station; the syrups come from the individual beverage distributors; the CO2 from a CO2 supplier. All of these components are assembled on-site. Usually the purchase and assembly of supplies and refills can be arranged through a single soda distributor. Of course, you can also use soft drinks and mixers in bottles, purchased and stored by the case. However, this is much more expensive than a postmix system—in terms of portion cost, labor, time, and storage space— both at the bar and in the storeroom. Nevertheless there are bars that use bottles by choice. Why? Chilled, bottled soda tastes better and keeps its carbonation longer, and discriminating customers know the difference and like to see the label. Bottled mixers are a specialty item used by bars in which a top-quality drink is part of the total concept.

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Automated Pouring Systems At many bars today, you will find that pouring is completely automated, not just for the soda system but also for beer, wines, juices, and liquor. A number of electronic dispensing systems on the market pour preset amounts and count each drink. Different systems measure and pour anywhere from a dozen well brands, for instance, to a complete spectrum of mixed drinks. Some systems use a handgun mounted on a flexible hose that is similar to the gun for a soda system. Buttons on the gun activate the flow from 1.75-liter or 750-milliliter bottles mounted upside down on the walls of a remote storeroom. A preset amount of liquor is delivered, and counters keep track of each drink. A long shot and a short shot can also be poured. Another kind of dispenser is composed of a series of faucets, each activated by touching a glass to a button under the faucet. Systems like these can dispense and control perhaps three-fourths of the volume of liquor poured. These systems, or dispensing towers as some are known, can portion between 12 and 32 different liquors, up to 16 per bar handgun. Beyond this, the call brands, liqueurs, juices, cream, and other liquids can always be dispensed by hand in the usual way. In another type of system, electronic dispensing equipment is integrated or interfaced with the POS system, such that the bartender or server must ring up a guest check before drinks can be poured. This offers greater control, but the pre-check function can slow down operations in a fast, high-volume operation. The largest automatic liquor-dispensing systems can dispense and track volume for up to 150 brands. Such a system requires a sizable investment, and not everybody reacts favorably to the idea. Some bartenders are unhappy with mechanical pouring because it seems to them that they’re being “second-guessed,” mistrusted by management. Some customers will always suspect that liquor poured out of their line of sight may be inferior to the brands they can see being poured at the bar rail. Another common problem is blocked lines; still another is that liquors that are not ordered frequently sit in the lines for long periods of time and may acquire an off taste. On the plus side, automatic systems can cut liquor costs dramatically, with savings in several ways: using large-size bottles; the savings of speed; the savings of getting the last ounce out of the bottle that, in hand-pouring, clings to the bottle’s side; and the savings in labor thanks to faster pouring (it is often so much faster that you eliminate the need for an extra bartender at peak periods). One great advantage of an automatic system is the consistency of the drink served, which is a desirable goal that is hard to achieve with hand-pouring, even measured hand-pouring. The gun also makes for a smooth, swift operation, with less handling of glasses. A major selling point of the automatic dispensing system is that it provides tighter liquor controls. This does not mean that you automatically eliminate losses: There are still spills, mistakes, and pilferage in any bar operation. Drinks are measured and counted, but the count must still be checked daily against sales and inventory. It is far easier to spot a discrepancy with an automatic system, but the cause of it must be removed to make this type of “policing” effective. Each enterprise must weigh these and other savings against the cost of the equipment in relation to its volume of business. In a small operation, an automatic system might not be worth its high price tag.

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In a high-volume bar, it might be what makes that volume possible and will pay for itself in just a couple of years—or less.

Mixers and Blenders Referring to the illustrations of pouring stations again, you see a mixer (E) on the shelf next to the cocktail unit. It is like the machine that makes shakes at McDonald’s, and in this book we refer to it as a shake mixer or spindle blender (see Figures 4.6a and b). The mixer has a shaft coming down from the top that agitates the contents of its cup. It is used for cocktails made with fruit juices, eggs, sugar, cream, or any other ingredient that does not blend readily with spirits. This mixer is one of today’s mechanical substitutes for the hand shaker. Countertop models can make up to five drinks at once; hand-held models make individual drinks. Some models have three height settings to accommodate different sizes of stainless-steel mixing cups. A water source and/or drain will be necessary if you are using a multiple-head spindle blender. The machine on the shelf beside the shake mixer is a blender (F) of a different type, which takes the mixing process one step further. Blades in the bottom of its cup can grind, puree, and otherwise refine ingredients that are put into it. Some drinks that incorporate food or ice, such as Banana Daiquiris and Frozen Margaritas, require such a blender (Figure 4.6a). Blenders used strictly for making drinks are called bar mixers, and are not to be confused with shake mixers. Many bars have both. The typical commercial blender has two speeds, but you can purchase them with variable-speed controls or a pulse function. Some blenders can be preprogrammed to mix the most popular drink types unattended and shut off automatically, freeing up the bartender’s time, however brief, for other duties. The body of the blender has sealed seams for sanitation reasons, and it usually rests on a heavy base with rubber feet to keep it stable. A toggle switch activates the motor, which turns a set of four or six blades attached to a clutch. Look for a blender with blades that are easy to remove for cleaning. Also look for sturdy containers in which to do the blending because they will be used a great deal. Containers can be made of glass, polycarbonate, or stainless steel, with a single handle or two handles. The container top can also be a single piece, usually rubber or vinyl, or a two-piece filler cap, so that you can add ingredients safely while the blender is in use. Commercial bar mixers are larger than those made for home kitchens. They are identified by the capacity of their containers, from 24 ounces to 1 gallon. Their motors range in size from ¼ to 3 horsepower. When it comes to blenders, the lightest-duty commercial model has a one-fourth- to one-third-horsepower motor; if you mix more than 75 to 100 drinks in a day, you should purchase at least a medium-duty model with a 1-horsepower motor. Bars that specialize in a particular frozen drink may have a frozen drink dispenser, also called a slush freezer or cocktail freezer. Similar to the soft-serve icecream machines at Dairy Queen, it soft-freezes a large quantity of premixed drinks. Commercial-machine capacities range from 8½ quarts to 72 quarts. You pour gallons of, for example, liquid Strawberry Daiquiri or Margarita mix into the top of the

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(a)

(b)

FIGURE 4.6 (a) A blender (b) and a spindle blender. Courtesy of Hamilton Beach/Proctor-Silex, Inc., Glen Allen, Virginia.

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“BLENDING” NEW TECHNOLOGY AND EASE OF USE Several leading blender manufacturers continue to refine and improve the quality of their products. For example: 䡲

Vita-Mix’s Portion Blending System (PBS) Advance is an ice shaver/blender that holds 5 gallons of ice and shaves the exact portion needed with the touch of a button. Advanced programming is optimized for noise reduction, and the programmable touchpad control allows up to four drinks to be made at once. The company’s On-Counter Blending Station Advance handles thicker ingredients easily and reportedly reduced processing time by onethird. Available with 34 programs, it turns off automatically, freeing the server to wait on other customers while a drink is blending. Waring’s Super Mixer II Single Head Drink Mixer has variable speed control, which

allows operators to adjust the desired speed during operation, depending on the consistency of the ingredients being mixed. For example, more power for hard ice cream in a milkshake, or when mixing yogurt or fresh fruit drinks. A high-efficiency agitator is engineered to evenly mix in “blend-ins,” even when working with hard ice cream. Its new MX Xtreme Hi-Power Blender Series offers a 3.5 Peak Input horsepower motor and 45,000 rpms, and is designed for uses ranging from preparing drinks and puréeing soups to chopping nuts and mixing dressings. Blendtec markets a Q Series blender that features a sound-reducing fan technology. In fact, many of its sound reduction components can be paired with other Blendtec units, allowing users to update rather than replace their models.

machine, and in a few moments it is frozen to a slush. To serve an individual drink, you hold a glass under the tap and move a lever. The frozen-drink dispenser pumps air into the liquid mix, increasing its volume and giving it a soft-frozen consistency. The percentage of air forced into the mix is called its overrun. For example, a 100 percent overrun produces exactly twice the volume of the mix that was put into the machine. Therefore, 16 ounces of mix with a 100 percent overrun produces a 32-ounce frozen drink, a 50 percent overrun produces a 24-ounce drink, and so on. In gravity-feed machines, the liquid mix is placed in a hopper and flows as needed into a cylinder below, where it is frozen, scraped out of the cylinder, and dispensed. These are inexpensive and easy to maintain and clean. More expensive pressurized machines use an air pump to drive mix into the freezer chamber, then force it out through a spigot. Pressurized machines can control overrun percentages better than gravity-feed machines. With either type of machine, the hopper should be kept fairly full of drink mix for the machine to do its job well. At the end of the day, you drain off the frozen-drink contents that are left and store them in the refrigerator for later use. Nightly cleaning of the machine is especially important, to prevent off-tasting drinks and to keep the cylinder and hoses from becoming gummy from the sweet, sticky ingredients. Regular maintenance might

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also include changing the blades inside the machine periodically, to prevent them from becoming too dull to scrape frozen product off the sides of the freezer chamber and to keep things well mixed.

Bar Sinks and Glasswashers Equipment for washing (both glasses and hands) is specified in great detail in local health codes. It typically includes these items, which are shown in Figure 4.2: 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲

A three- or four-compartment sink (I) Drainboards (J) Special glass-washing brushes (K) A hand sink (G) with a towel rack (attached to blender station) A waste dump (L)

A three-compartment sink with drainboards is usually a single piece of equipment placed near a bartending station or between two stations (see Figure 4.7). One compartment is for washing, one for rinsing, and one for sanitizing, or killing bacteria with a chemical solution. Dimensions will vary from 60 to 96 inches in length, with a foot-long drainboard on one side or both sides. Each sink compartment is 10 inches wide and about 14 inches from front to back, with a depth of 10 to 11 inches. In a fourcompartment, sink the fourth compartment is usually used as a waste dump, a netting is placed in the bottom to catch the debris from used glasses. You will need to decide if you want each sink to have its own faucet, or if two will suffice—each one can swivel to serve two sinks. Plumbing requirements are slightly different in either case. Glass brushes stand up to the soapy water of the wash sink. Figure 4.8 shows a motorized model, which is highly recommended if glasses are washed by hand.

FIGURE 4.8 Motorized glass brushes. FIGURE 4.7 A three-compartment sink with drainboards. Courtesy of Glastender, Inc., Saginaw, Michigan.

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Courtesy of Hamilton Beach/Proctor-Silex, Inc., Glen Allen, Virginia.

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The bartender places a glass over the center brush and presses a button to make the bristles spin. With hand models, the bartender twists the glass around and between the brushes to clean the inside and the rim. Next, the glass goes into the rinse sink, then into the sanitizing solution, and finally onto the drainboard, upside down, to air-dry. It is best to air-dry glassware because towel-drying is inefficient and can leave bits of towel fuzz on the clean glasses. Stricter sanitation laws and labor savings are two major reasons for the increased use of automatic glasswashers (shown in Figure 4.9). In fact, more and more health departments are requiring them. This FIGURE 4.9 A rotary glasswasher. Courtesy of Glastender, Inc., Saginaw, Michigan. machine is a type of small dishwasher that fits neatly under the underbar or backbar. It washes and rinses glasses with tap water, provides a final high-temperature rinse to sanitize them, and blow-dries them. Wash temperatures range from 150 to 212°F. for quick drying. An advantage of higher temperatures is that the faster the glasses dry, the less likely they are to emerge with water spots. A full cycle of washing, rinsing, and drying takes about 20 minutes and uses about 3 gallons of water for each fill, at a water pressure of 20 pounds per square inch (psi). Some models have a variety of “cycles” for different types of glassware. You might also look for a glasswasher that provides a final rinse of cool water, which eliminates cool-down time and makes the glasses ready to use as soon as they are clean. Some models of glasswashers, like commercial dishwashers, require the ability to vent away the steam and heat created by the machine. Be sure to ask before you buy. There are so-called high-temperature (180°F.) and low-temperature (140°F.) machines. The high temps require ventilation; the low temps do not. It is usually impractical, if not downright impossible, to vent steam from glasswashers in a bar area, so some bar owners opt for a sanitizing system that uses chlorine or other chemicals instead of super-hot water during the rinse cycle. Detergent suppliers sell, install, and maintain them. Typically, the sanitizing system is mounted under the bar, next to the dish machine. The system works by injecting a preset amount of chemical solution directly into the rinse water. Some cities require periodic testing of the system to make sure that the solution is strong enough to sanitize effectively. Figure 4.10 lists different guidelines for chemical concentrations and rinse-water temperatures. Some words of caution: No matter what the manufacturers claim about the costsaving advantages of low-temperature units, there is nothing worse than that soapy taste on the rim of a glass that results when the types or amounts of chemicals used are incorrect. Also, if you put other utensils in your glasswasher, some of them,

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SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE CHEMICAL SANITIZING RINSE Sanitizing Solution Type

Final Rise Temperature

Concentration

Chlorine solution Iodine solution

min: 49˚C (120˚F)a min: 24˚C (75˚F)

Quaternary ammonium solution

min: 24˚C (75˚F)

min: 50 ppm (as NaOCl) min: 12.5 ppm, max: 25 ppm min: 150 ppm max: 400 ppm

aFor glasswashing machines that use a chlorine sanatizing solution, the maximum final rinse

temperature specified by the manufacturer shall be at least 24˚C (75˚F). Source: NSF International, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

FIGURE 4.10

Courtesy NSF International, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

especially those made of aluminum, pewter, or silverplate, might react poorly to chemical sanitizing systems. Another problem for bars where space is in short supply is that glasswashers require about 4 linear feet of underbar area. The machine itself takes up 2 feet, and there should be a foot of drainboard space on either side of it, as well as a dump sink on the soiled-glass side. The advantage is that the machine can easily wash up to 500 glasses per hour, giving bartenders more time to prepare drinks. There are also conveyor-type washers, capable of cleaning up to 1,000 glasses per hour, for use in high-volume operations. You might be wondering why you would not just wash bar glasses in a regular, kitchen dish machine, especially if the bar is located where food is also served. Doing so has several drawbacks. Glasses have to be carried back and forth, increasing the possibility of breakage. Different kinds of dishracks are required for glasses, also to prevent breakage. The other good reason to wash glasses separately from other dishes is that even a trace of grease on a glass can spoil a drink or the foamy head on a beer. Despite all the automated glass-washing options, it also is important to have some glassware towels on hand. These are slightly larger than the standard bar towel, highly absorbent and lint-free. At the hotel bar pictured in Figures 4.2 and 4.3, each pickup station has a waste dump (L) on the server’s side of the bar. Cocktail servers returning with dirty glasses dump the debris here. Behind the bar are removable trashcans. A bottle chute (W on Figure 4.2) conveys empty beer and soda bottles to the basement below the bar for disposal. Empty liquor bottles are accumulated at the bar to be turned in to the storeroom in exchange for full bottles. In a bar with a storeroom below it, a bottle chute can convey the empties directly to the storeroom.

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REFRIGERATION NEEDS You will need a way to chill glasses for straight-up cocktails, frozen drinks, and ice-cream drinks. Some bars make a special promotional point of serving drinks in frosted glasses or beer in frosted mugs. This requires a glass froster, a top-opening freezer that chills glasses at temperatures around 0°F (H on Figure 4.2). When glasses are removed from the freezer, they sport refreshing coats of frost. Glasses and mugs placed in a glass froster must be dry to begin with; otherwise, a thin coat of ice will form on them. Then, when a drink is poured into the glass or mug, it might stick to the lip of the drinker or the ice might dilute the drink. If you do not have sufficient space for a glass froster, you must have another way to chill glasses for straight-up cocktails and frozen and ice-cream drinks. If you have refrigerator space, you can use it to frost a wet glass without making ice. The other alternative is to ice a glass by hand with cube ice just before the drink is poured. A bottle chiller or bottle cooler is available for quick-chilling wines. There are reachin or reach-down units, some wall-mounted with glass fronts that have the additional advantage of showing off the wines inside. The advantage of a bottle chiller is that a minimum inventory of white wines may be kept under refrigeration close to the bar area, while the rest can be stored elsewhere until needed. Bottle chillers can be used in wait stations, too. Cold storage in the form of an underbar refrigerator is a requirement for most bars. These units, miniatures of standard commercial refrigerators, range in size from 60 to 90 inches in length, of the correct depth and height to fit in the underbar or backbar space. They provide from 5 to 15 cubic feet of storage space. Although this is not much, it is enough for common bar perishables, such as garnishes and dairy products. It is not sufficient to purchase a mini-refrigerator for home use and expect it to do the hard work of an underbar unit. Health departments do not allow the enamel or porcelain exterior finishes of home units in a commercial setting, and the coveted NSFI seal will be required. Sturdy doors and handles, the ability to self-clean and drain wastewater away from the unit, and a warranty are among the desired features. Think about how the doors open and to what extent they will get in the way on busy nights. Consider a sliding door instead of one that opens out into the bartender’s path. Look for the biggest internal cabinet capacity you can get for the size of refrigerator that your bar can accommodate.

Ice and Ice Machines The debate among serious cocktail aficionados may never be settled: Does the use of ice interfere with the taste of spirits, or enhance it? Either way, a cocktail bar could not operate at all without a plentiful supply of ice. Furthermore, the hotter the climate, the more important ice becomes as part of most drinks’ appeal. The most inventive use of ice that we have heard recently is from an enterprising bar owner who arranged to have a chunk of an actual North Atlantic iceberg brought into the bar; customers were charged $1 extra for use of actual “iceberg ice” in their drinks!

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Fortunately, there are less complicated ways to chill a cocktail. Every bar operation has an icemaker, or ice machine; some have more than one. If the bar is large enough the icemaker can be part of the underbar or backbar, but often this is not possible. If the icemaker must be installed elsewhere, be sure to design the bar space so that there is plenty of room for ice storage. The typical ice bin is 24 to 36 inches in length, and its capacity varies from 100 pounds (for a 24-inch bin) to 150 pounds (for a 36-inch bin). Technology has resulted in terrific improvements for ice machines. Today you can either flip a switch on a modern icemaker and it cleans itself, or program the machine electronically to change its output based on daily or seasonal demands. Regardless of the technological capabilities you want, before you select an icemaker you must decide what size and shape of cube ice to use. Why? Because different sizes and shapes of cube ice serve different needs. Large cubes melt more slowly, smaller sizes stack better in the glass, round cubes fit the glass better at the edges, and rectangular cubes stack better than round ones, leaving fewer voids. In a fast pour, liquor hitting a round cube can splash out of the glass. A medium-sized cube will suffice if you do not have any special needs. Otherwise, your ice-size-and-shape decisions will be made based on your clientele, drink menu, glassware, type of pour, and speed of service. If you’re using an ice dispenser, the cubes should also be small enough to fit into it and be dispensed easily without clogging or jamming the dispenser. If you are making a lot of blender drinks, large cubes will make your blender blades work all that much harder, and possibly compromise the consistency of the drink. Consider these factors when deciding on the type and size of cube ice to use: 䡲

Displacement: Cubes should “pack” well into the glass but not appear to pack too thoroughly. After all, you never want a customer to think he or she is paying for a drink that is mostly ice. The shape of the cube also determines how much of its surface touches the liquid and, therefore, how quickly it works to chill the drink. Cube ice should be used for pure spirits, such as single-malt Scotches and plain Bourbon on the rocks. Cube ice chills the liquor without melting too quickly to water it down. Clarity: Ice should be completely clear, made with pure, sanitary drinking water that produces no off taste, color, or odor. (This includes not tasting or smelling like water-purifying chemicals.) For this reason, distilled water makes the clearest and most neutral-tasting ice. Density: How hard or soft the ice is frozen determines how quickly it interacts with the drink. The cubes also should not be so soft that they stick together in the bin. Local temperature and humidity affect density, the location of the icemaker in your operation, and its temperature setting.

Ice quality is important enough to a bar business that if possible, ice should be dumped out at the end of a workday and fresh ice made for the next day. As you probably know from home icemaking in your own refrigerator, ice that is left to sit can quickly absorb odors and become stale. (A bartender’s trick from Santé magazine: When faced with “old” ice and no time to make fresh, it can be quickly rinsed with warm water just before use.)

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Keeping Ice Clean Although not often thought of as a food item, cube ice is consumed by your customers, and it needs to stay as clean and sanitary as anything else you serve. Clean ice starts with a clean machine. Cleaning and sanitizing your ice machine means removing built-up mineral deposits, algae, and slime from the machine’s parts. According to Frank Murphy, the national training director for GCS Services, this process should be completed at least every six months. “Cleaning and sanitizing is essential to make sure the very delicate cycle of making ice is not interrupted and that every cube looks the same as every other cube,” Murphy says. Use the following tips for keeping your machine and ice clean between big cleanings: 䡲

Always have staff wash their hands before removing ice, and always have them use a plastic ice scoop. Keep the plastic ice scoop clean. Wash it frequently with a neutral cleaner and always rinse thoroughly.

Do not store food and beverage items or containers in the ice bin. It is not a refrigerated storage space and should not act as one. Clean the bin liner frequently with a neutral cleaner, rinsing thoroughly. Prevent corrosion on the exterior of your machine by wiping it occasionally with a clean, soft cloth. To remove oil and dirt, use a damp cloth with a neutral cleaner. Check the air filter on air-cooled models at least twice per month. If the filter get clogged use warm water and a neutral cleaner to wash it out. Check the condenser (if your machine has one) once a year, and clean it with a brush or a vacuum cleaner. More frequent cleaning may be required depending on the location of your ice machine.

Source: Restaurants and Institutions, Cahners Business Information, A Division of Reed Elsevier, Inc.

Icemaking machines are refrigeration units. A pump inside an icemaking machine circulates water from a tank. You will want a machine with a good filtration system to ensure pure water and minimal buildup of the minerals and chlorine found in most drinking water. The water runs through tubing to a freezer assembly, which freezes it into a single sheet of ice. The frozen sheet is then forced through a screen (to produce cube ice) or crushed (to produce crushed ice). Different types of screens produce different sizes and shapes of cube ice. Each machine makes only one type and size, but in some machines you can adjust the cube size. For example, a machine will make a ¾-inch cube varying from ¼- to ½-inch thick with a simple adjustment you can make yourself. A different grid for the same machine will give you a big (1¼-inch to 1½ inch) cube, ½ to 1 inch thick. But no machine makes more than one cube size at a time. After the ice is crushed or cubed, it is dumped into a storage bin. When the bin fills to capacity, a sensor inside the bin stops the icemaking process until there is room to make and store more ice. Since most of the icemaker’s parts come into constant contact with water, it is important that they be made of rustproof materials, with storage bins of either stainless steel or heavy-duty plastic.

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In addition to cube ice, you can also opt to use crushed ice, cracked ice, flake ice, and shaved ice. Crushed ice can be made by running cube ice through an ice crusher. Another type of machine produces crushed or cracked ice from scratch instead of from cube ice. Both machines make small, random-sized pieces of hard, clear ice. Some drinks call for crushed or cracked ice, which is also used in making frozen drinks. A flake-ice machine, or flaker, produces a soft, snow-like ice that is used mostly for keeping beverages cold. In a wine bucket, for example, flake ice will assume the shape of the bottle. If you use cubes in a bucket they will slide to the bottom when you take the bottle out, and it will be hard to replace the bottle in the ice. This more or less defeats the purpose of the bucket, except as decoration. Flake ice is suitable only for frozen drinks, not as standard bar ice, because in an ordinary mixed drink, it melts quickly, dilutes the drink, and tends to create a water cap on the surface, which makes the drink taste weak. Shaved ice, made by a machine that shaves ice off of large blocks, is similar to flake ice; it is soft and opaque and has the same uses.

Determining Icemaker Size and Other Factors. An ice machine’s size refers to the number of pounds of ice it can produce in 24 hours. Today’s underbar models are so compact that even a 22-inch-wide machine can make 500 pounds of ice per day. How much do you need? The general rule is 3 pounds of ice per customer; 1 pound of ice makes three drinks. Ice is used for things other than mixed drinks, and some melting, in transit and in storage, has been factored into these guidelines. However, this is a very broad average. Your needs will change based on daily traffic, seasonal business, and time of day, as well as whether you must share ice output with a kitchen or other parts of your operation. It is always smart to plan on making 20 to 25 percent more ice than you will actually need, to allow for spillage, staff use, and the overall growth of your business. To do a basic ice-needs calculation, try this: 1. Estimate ice usage for one full week by multiplying the number of guests to be served that week by 3 pounds per guest. 2. Divide the result by 7 (days per week). This is the daily number of pounds of ice you will need. 3. Multiply that figure by 1.25, to add a bit of extra output. 4. If your average is not constant—because, for example, you know that Fridays and Saturdays your place will be swamped—estimate an additional amount for those days and include it in the total. This way you know there will be enough ice, even for your busiest days. Where you put the ice machine can drastically affect its production. The warmer the air around it and the warmer the water it is fed, the less ice it will produce. Other factors to consider are the available space, the noise it makes, and the heat it generates, along with whether you have to share the ice with a kitchen. Wherever you put the icemaker, make sure that it is well ventilated to ensure that it functions properly, and that the area meets the same sanitation standards as the bar itself. If the incoming water supply is warm, you might consider adding an inlet chiller to the icemaking system. It collects cold water that would normally be drained away from the icemaker and recirculates it in a series of copper coils to chill fresh water on its way into the icemaker to be frozen. Inlet chillers are about the size of a household

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fire extinguisher. They have no moving parts and use no electricity, but their prechill function can save up to 30 percent of your electric costs and boost your icemaker’s capacity. In the United States we consume more ice than bread—more than 100 million tons every year! Like any other type of food or drink we ingest, it can become contaminated, retain bacteria, and, therefore, cause illness. This is why cleanliness and sanitary handling practices are critical in your manufacture, storage, and use of ice.

Icemaker Maintenance. The most important maintenance task regarding icemaking machines is to clean the unit’s compressor and condenser coils according to the manufacturer’s directions. About 80 percent of service calls can be traced to dirty coils. Keeping them free of dirt and grease allows better air circulation. The coils hold refrigerant, which is pressurized and turns from liquid to vapor and back again during the cooling process. Since the 1990s the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has prompted a change from old-style refrigerants (that were thought to deplete the ozone layer in Earth’s atmosphere) to newer ones, called hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). Even these are a stopgap measure, though. They are to be phased out of service between the years 2015 and 2030. What this means for bar or restaurant operators is that there are strict rules for any type of refrigeration repair. If you have an old model that still uses the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs, or the old brand name, Freon) that have fallen out of favor, the EPA says that if the machine is leaking 35 percent or more of its refrigerant pressure per year, it must be fixed. You are required to keep records of when, and how much, refrigerant is added during servicing. (If you fail to do so, you will be in violation of the federal Clean Air Act and you can be fined.) Only hire repair technicians who are EPA-certified, since they know how to dispose of old refrigerant properly. In addition, look for the Underwriters Laboratories (UL) label on any new, ozone-safe refrigerant that is added to your machine. Other types of regular maintenance include cleaning and/or changing the water and air filters, wiping down the inside and outside of the unit and ice-storage bin, and checking for mineral buildup on switches and sensors. Some manufacturers offer an acid-based ice-machine cleaning solution. Your ice machine might stop working and need to be reset if a filter is clogged or if there has been a power outage. The warmer or dirtier the environment in which the icemaker must work, the more frequent its maintenance checks should be.

Essentials for Draft-Beer Service A draft-beer serving system consists of a keg or half-keg of beer, the beer box where the keg is stored, the standard or tap (faucet), the line between the keg and the standard, and a CO2 tank connected to the keg with another line. The beer box, also called a tap box, is a refrigerator designed especially to hold a keg or half-keg of beer at the proper serving temperature of 36 to 38°F. Generally, a beer box is located right below the standard, which is mounted on the bar top, so that the line between keg and standard is as short as possible. If more than one brand of draft beer is served, each

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brand has its own system—keg, line, and standard—either in its own beer box or in a box shared with another brand. The supply of beer at the bar should be sufficient to last the serving period because bringing in a new keg of beer and tapping it is a major operation. Sometimes several kegs are needed to provide enough beer for a high-volume bar. A beer system may be designed into either the front bar or the backbar. If there is no room at the bar, the beer boxes may be located in a nearby storage area with lines running into the standards. On the backbar of the hotel bar in Figure 4.3, you see the beer standard (Q), but the rest of the system is on the garage level below. The beer box consists of a large walk-in cooler; a beer line runs behind the liquor display up to the standard. Since a single beer keg takes up a precious 24 square inches of cold storage space, remote systems, even though they are more expensive than beer boxes, work best for bars where draft-beer service is popular. Keep the lines as short as possible, and keep them as cold as possible, even if this means mechanical refrigeration.

Storage Equipment You need enough storage space at the bar to take care of all your needs for one serving period. This means liquor, mixes, bottled drinks, wines, beers, garnishes, and miscellaneous supplies, such as cocktail napkins and stir sticks. Generally, this storage forms the major part of the backbar, as in Figure 4.3. The day’s reserve supplies of liquor (all of the unopened bottles as backups for those in use) are either stored in dry (unrefrigerated) storage cabinets with locks or displayed on the backbar. Also in dry storage are red house wines for pouring by the glass or carafe, and reserve supplies of napkins, bar towels, matches, picks, straws, stir sticks, and other nonfood, nonbeverage items. Undercounter and backbar refrigerators (see Figure 4.11) hold supplies of special mixes and juices, bottled beer, bottled mixes if used, white wines, fruits and condiments for garnishing, cream, eggs, and other perishables. These refrigerators may also be used to chill glasses. It is important not to overload the cabinet, however, since proper airflow is essential to chilling the contents properly. From the outside, the backbar refrigerator looks just like the dry-storage cabinets. Some backbar units are half refrigerator and half dry storage. NSF International tests bar-sized refrigerators for sanitation and temperature control, so look for the NSFI seal when making your selection. The refrigerator should be able to hold foods at a temperature of 40°F. Looking again at Figure 4.3, you can see how this works. Backbar refrigerator cabinets (T) store supplies of perishables in one section, and bottled beers and soft drinks in another section. To the right at the backbar is a dry-storage cabinet (U) for bar towels, napkins, and FIGURE 4.11 A backbar refrigerator. other supplies. Reserve supplies of liquor are stored in Glastender, Inc., Saginaw, Michigan. locked overhead cabinets above the front bar.

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Courtesy of

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How Refrigeration Works. Refrigerating a space means to transfer heat out of that space, extending the life of the food inside the refrigerator. The more heat you can remove from a product, the longer it can be held in usable condition. The refrigerator fights a constant battle: Its door is opened and closed to insert products that are not yet chilled, letting in outside air. Even when the door is closed there may be tiny leaks around the rubber door seals. The refrigeration cycle is the process of removing heat from a refrigerated space. The refrigeration circuit is the system of equipment that makes the cycle possible. Successful refrigeration is a combination of temperature reduction, humidity, and air circulation. To keep most foods at their peak, you need a refrigerator capable of cooling them to 40°F. (In the past, it was thought that 45°F was cold enough, but that is no longer the standard.) Take a look at what happens when you open the refrigerator door of that little underbar unit. The components of the circuit are shown in Figure 4.12. First, opening the door immediately introduces warm air into the cooled space. The warm air rises and is drawn toward evaporator coils made of copper. Inside the sealed evaporator coils is liquid refrigerant (the HFCs and HCFCs mentioned earlier), which becomes vapor (gas) as it winds through the coils. It is pumped through a suction line by a compressor into another series of coils, called the condenser. There, it turns back into a liquid. An expansion valve determines the amount of refrigerant flowing through the system—it’s a small opening between the evaporator and the condenser. The more the surrounding air needs to be cooled, the more often the refrigerant flows. Depending on the size of the refrigerator, it will have a ½ to 1-horsepower compressor; some larger (four-door) units rely on two ¾-horsepower compressors. Compressors can be mounted above or below the refrigerator. Bottom-mounted ones reduce interior space somewhat and require smaller doors. You can also have remote

Suction Line Evaporator Coil

Flow of Refrigerant Motor Compressor Condenser Coil

Refrigerator

Thermostat Switch

Evaporator Fan

Condenser Fan Liquid Line Expansion Valve

Sensing Bulb

FIGURE 4.12 The components of a refrigeration system.

Receiver Source: Facilities Operations

Manual, National Restaurant Association, Washington, DC.

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compressors that sit elsewhere in your building and are connected to the refrigerator by copper lines, so as not to take up scarce underbar space and to minimize the heat and noise generated by the compressor. A cousin to the bar refrigerator is the horizontal bottle cooler. If you serve a lot of individual bottles or cans, this unit enables you to store them in chilled bins with sliding top lids. The bottle cooler has the same small refrigeration system discussed earlier. Like icemakers, bar refrigerators and bottle coolers require coil cleaning and periodic preventive maintenance. Servicing and recharging with new refrigerant should be done only by an EPA-certified repair technician.

Beverage Storage Considerations The fictitious hotel bar we have been using as an example keeps its daily supply of wines by the bottle for dining-room service in a storeroom around the corner, which includes a large cooler set at 45 to 50°F. for the white wines. Some restaurants may store their daily wine stocks at their bars, display them in wine racks as part of the room décor, or store them under lock and key in a wine cellar. Oxygen and sunlight are the enemies of both beer and wine. Leaving a wine bottle open for any length of time changes the taste of the remaining wine. Several devices have been invented to deal with the problem of storing open, partially empty bottles of wine, and you will learn about them Chapter 7. In beer, oxygen reacts with the natural fatty acids in the brew to form compounds known as unsaturated aldehydes, leaving an off-taste that some describe as “wet cardboard.” Partially used beer bottles, of course, are not storage problems. Strong, direct sunlight can cause damage to both beer and wine quality. In wine, unnecessary warmth (either from sunlight or storage in, for instance, a warm vehicle) can heat the wine and damage the seal on the cork. Bottles that have messy labels—where wine has clearly leaked onto them—should not be accepted from suppliers because they might have suffered heat damage and the wine might be spoiled. Light reacts with a naturally bitter substance in beer (from the use of hops) to produce another undesirable compound, an intense odor that is commonly referred to as “skunky.” This is why many brewers use brown bottles. The ones that use clear or green bottles take an extra step, extracting the bitter compound from the hops and treating it so it is no longer susceptible to light damage. Treating this compound also results in better-quality beer foam. Beer in aluminum cans is most often used for off-premise sales. These cans are an acceptable option only if your establishment is casual. They are easy to stack and unbreakable. Canned beer gets colder more quickly than bottled beer, but it also loses it chill quicker. Cans stay freshest when stored between 40 and 70°F (4 to 21°C). Warmer temperatures will destroy flavor and aroma. Bottled beer storage temperatures are the same as those for canned beer. Both cans and bottles should be stored away from any light or heat source. Unlike wine, beer bottles should be stored upright to avoid contact of the beer with the bottle cap. The only exceptions are the Farmhouse Ales in large, wine-type bottles with corks, which should be stored lying down.

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If beer gets cold enough to freeze, it is likely to precipitate its solids and form flakes that will not dissolve when thawed. Beer kept too cold for a long time may “gush” and spew out when opened. The same thing happens when bottles or cans are handled roughly. Beer that is too warm foams too much, which is just as wasteful. Draft beer in kegs has the most stringent temperature requirements. It must be kept cold from brewer, to distributor, to storeroom, to bar, preferably at 35 to 39°F (2 to 4°C). Since draft beer is not pasteurized in the way that bottled beers are, it is much more susceptible to deterioration and might begin secondary fermentation if kept above 44°F (7°C), turning sour and cloudy and reducing its lifespan significantly. Stored at ideal temperatures, kegs have a life cycle. They start aging as soon as they are tapped, and last 30 days (optimistically, up to 45 days) after that. Beer kegs should not share a walk-in cooler with food storage, since frequent opening and closing of the door will make it impossible to keep the beer at a constant temperature. For the same reason, kegs in an underbar beer system should have their own special refrigerated storage space. The beer box or cooler should be maintained at a constant temperature between 36 and 38°F (2 to 3°C.). Beer that has warmed to temperatures higher than 45°F (7°C.) might become cloudy or turn sour. Beer allowed to chill below freezing might become unsalable; the water content of the beer freezes and separates from the alcohol. If allowed to thaw slowly at its normal temperature of 36 to 38°F (2 to 3°C.), beer can sometimes be blended back together by gently rotating the kegs. (This is best done by your distributor.) If the beer is cloudy after thawing and rotation, however, it is beyond salvaging. There is more information in Chapter 8 on cleaning and caring for draft beer systems.

BAR TOOLS AND SMALL EQUIPMENT Just as chefs have their favorite sets of kitchen knives that they guard zealously, bartenders have their favorite tools. Seasoned bartenders generally agree that the simpler the tool, the better. Gimmicks take up space and may not save any time, and a good bartender does not waste either. Buying high-quality tools is important because no one can afford to waste time at a busy bar struggling with poor-quality implements. Moreover, doing so can be dangerous or at least inefficient. An inexperienced bartender wielding a hand shaker with an ill-fitting lid can drench a customer. Stainless steel is the metal of choice for small equipment and utensils, just as it is for large underbar pieces, and for the same reasons. It looks good, it is durable, and it is easy to clean. Most small bar equipment is used for mixing and pouring. A second group of utensils is used in preparing condiments to garnish drinks. A third group is used for serving.

Smallware for Mixing and Pouring The indispensable tools for mixing and pouring by hand are: 䡲 䡲

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145

Mixing glass Hand shaker Bar strainer Barspoon Ice scoop Ice tongs Muddler Fruit squeezer Funnel Glass rimmer

A jigger (Figure 4.13) is a small container that measures ounces or fractions of ounces of liquors used for cocktails, highballs, and other mixed drinks. (Although these liquors are bought in bottles measured in metric terms—a liter, or 750 milliliters—they are measured in ounces when drinks are poured. One ounce of liquid equals approximately 30 milliliters.) There are two types of jiggers. The double-ended, stainless-steel jigger has a small cup on one end and a large cup on the other. It comes in several combinations of sizes, such as ½ ounce/1 ounce, ¼ ounce/1 ounce, and 1 ounce/1½ ounces. The most-used combinations are probably the ¾/1½ ounces and the 1 ounce/1½ ounces, but what you need depends on the size drink you serve. The smaller shot is commonly known as a pony. The second jigger type is made of heavy glass with a plain or elevated base. It comes in several sizes, from 7⁄8 ounce to 3 ounces. This jigger also comes with or without a line marking off another measure, for example, a 1-ounce glass with a line at ½ or 5⁄8 ounce, or a 1½-ounce glass with a line at ½, 5⁄8, ¾, 7⁄8, or 1 ounce. A glass jigger may also be used as a shot glass when a customer orders a straight shot. To measure using the steel jigger, the bartender fills the cup to the brim. To measure using the glass jigger, the bartender fills to the line. After pouring the drink the bartender turns the jigger upside down on the drainboard so that any residual liquor drains out and one drink’s flavor will not be carried over to the next. If a jigger is used for something heavy, such as cream or a liqueur, it is rinsed with water before reuse. A pourer (see Figure 4.14) is a device that fits into the neck of a beverage bottle and is constructed to reduce the rate of flow to a predictable, controllable amount. A pourer is used on every opened liquor bottle at the bar. There are three categories: slow, semi-fast, and fast. Pourers are available in either stainless steel or plastic. The plastic pourers come in different colors and can be used to color-code different types of liquor. The stainlesssteel pourers are better looking and last longer than the plastic versions, with the exception of corks that fit into the bottlenecks; these wear out and must be replaced from time to time. Some pourers that measure the liquor poured, then cut off automatically when a preset amount is reached. They are expensive and most bartenders don’t like them, but they are a form of control FIGURE 4.13 Jiggers for measuring not to be overlooked if they will save more money and aggravaliquor. Courtesy of Co-Rect Products, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota. tion than they cost.

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FIGURE 4.14 A pourer, which fits on bottle tops.

Courtesy of

Metrokane Products and Pollen Design, New York, New York.

A mixing glass (see Figure 4.15) is a heavy glass container in which drink ingredients are stirred together with ice. A typical mixing glass has a capacity of 16 to 17 ounces. It is used to make Martinis, Manhattans, and other drinks whose ingredients blend together readily. It is rinsed after each use. Mixing glasses should be heattreated and chip-proof. A hand shaker or cocktail shaker (see Figure 4.16) is a versatile favorite of bartenders. It is a combination of a mixing glass and a stainless-steel container that fits on top of it, in which drink ingredients are shaken together with ice. The stainless-steel container is known variously as a mixing cup, mixing steel, or mix can.

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Ingredients and ice are measured into the mixing glass, then the cup is placed firmly on top, angled so that one edge is flush with the side of the glass. The two are held tightly together and shaken. The cup must be of heavy-gauge, high-quality stainless steel; if it loses its shape, it will not fit tightly over the glass. Usually a shaker comes in a set with its own strainer. The strainer and shaker cup should have an overhang of about 1½ inches to seal properly. A shaker is used for cocktails made with fruit juices, egg, sugar, cream, or any other ingredient that does not mix readily with spirits. A shaker is rinsed after each use. The mixing container of the shake mixer (mentioned earlier in the section on blenders) is also called a mixing cup, steel, or can. This machine has supplanted the hand shakers at some bars. It is faster and more efficient. It can even make ice cream drinks, which is something hand shakers cannot do. A bar strainer (see Figure 4.17) is a round wire coil on a handle, which fits over the top of a shaker or mixing glass; it has “ears” that fit over the rim to keep it in position. The strainer keeps ice and fruit pulp from going into the glass when the drink is poured. A bar strainer is used with mixing glasses and shaker and blender cups. An elongated strainer, for 19-ounce bar glasses and shakers, is a modern addition. A barspoon (see Figure 4.18) is a shallow spoon with a long handle, often with a bead on the end. The spoon and handle are stainless steel, typically 10 or 11 inches long. The bowl equals one teaspoon. Barspoons are used for stirring drinks, either in a drink glass or in a mixing glass or cup. During Prohibition humorist George Ade, writing nostalgically in The Old-Time Saloon, described the use of the barspoon in pre-Prohibition days when, he said, a good bartender would have died of shame if compelled to use a shaker: “The supreme art of the mixing process was to place the thumb lightly on top of the long spoon and then revolve the spoon at incredible speed by twiddling the fingers . . . a knack acquired by the maestros only.” Perhaps this mixing method explains the traditional bead on the end of the handle. An ice scoop (see Figure 4.19) is, as its name implies, an implement for scooping ice from an ice bin. It usually has a 6- or 8-ounce capacity. A standard size makes it easy to get just the right amount of ice with a single scoop. Bartenders who scoop ice out of bins directly with a glass are asking for trouble, which they will realize the first time that they break or chip a glass, leaving broken glass in the ice bin and a razorsharp rim on the glass. Use the scoop! Ice tongs (see Figure 4.20) are designed to handle one cube of ice at a time. One of the less popular bar tools, tongs are a relic from the days when all cube ice were large. Nevertheless they are still used, for example, in airline service. They serve an important function because ice that goes into a drink should not be touched by human hands. A muddler, or muddling stick (see Figure 4.21), has made a big comeback with the renewed popularity of classic drinks, although it can be used for many types of cocktails. A muddler is a tool that looks like a little baseball bat, most often made of wood but also stainless steel or plastic. One end is flat for muddling (crushing) one substance into another, such as sugar into bitters in an Old- Fashioned, or fresh mint into a mojito. The other end is rounded and can be used to crack ice. If selecting a wooden muddler, be sure it is a good-quality hardwood that has not been laquered or stained, so that bits of these finishes don’t end up in drinks.

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FIGURE 4.15 A mixing glass. Courtesy of Co-Rect Products, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

FIGURE 4.16 The shaker cup fits tightly over the mixing glass for hand shaking. Courtesy of Co-Rect Products, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

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FIGURE 4.17 Bar strainers.

Courtesy of Co-Rect Products,

Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

FIGURE 4.18 Barspoons. Courtesy of Co-Rect Products, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

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FIGURE 4.19 Ice scoops.

Courtesy of Co-Rect Products, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

FIGURE 4.20 Ice tongs.

Courtesy of Co-Rect Products, Inc.,

Minneapolis, Minnesota.

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FIGURE 4.21 Muddling sticks.

Courtesy of Co-Rect Products, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

FIGURE 4.22 Fruit squeezers. Courtesy of Co-Rect Products, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

FIGURE 4.23 Funnels.

Courtesy of Co-Rect Products, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

A bar-type fruit squeezer (see Figure 4.22) is a hand-powered gadget that squeezes half a lemon or lime for a single drink, straining pits and pulp. Funnels (see Figure 4.23) are needed in several sizes for pouring from large containers into small ones, such as transferring special mixes from bulk containers into plastic bottles for bar use. Some funnels have a screen at the wide end to strain pulp.

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The Muddler Makes a Splash In previous editions of this textbook, we called the muddler “a relic from another day; now simple syrup instead of lump sugar is used, and ice rarely needs to be cracked.” Today, however, we’ll gladly muddle—and eat—those words! This handy little wooden pestle is enjoying a great resurgence of popularity. It can be used to combine any number of ingredients with delicious results, right in the mixing glass before adding the alcohol. Muddling (coarsely crushing) fresh fruits or herbs, perhaps with a bit of liqueur or simple syrup, releases an explosion of fresh flavor. The flat end is used for gently coaxing the aromatic oils out of herbs such as mint and basil leaves. Even citrus fruits must be muddled with care, as pulverizing them can release the bitterness of the pith. There are two types of muddlers, smaller ones (7 to 9 inches in length, about ¾ inches thick) for

individual drink preparation, and larger (longer, thicker) ones for heavier-duty jobs. Those that are made of hardwood should be oiled regularly and hand-dried; like good wooden spoons or wood-handled knives, never wash a wooden muddler in the glasswasher or dishwasher. The correct method for muddling can best be described as a firm but controlled pushand-twist motion. The idea is not to smash the ingredient into bits but to release its essential oils and/or juices. The drinks are strained into cocktail glasses, but it’s okay if little bits of muddled ingredients remain—it’s part of the charm of this preparation method. Muddled drinks are sometimes referred to as “stick drinks” for the use of the muddling stick in their preparation: Caipirinhas, Juleps, Old-Fashioneds, Mojitos, and others.

A glass rimmer (see Figure 4.24) is a handy gadget used to rim a glass with salt or sugar. It is made up of three trays. One tray contains a sponge that is saturated with lemon or lime juice, the second contains a layer of salt, and the third a layer of sugar. The glass rim is pressed on the sponge, then dipped in salt (for a Margarita or a Bloody Mary) or sugar (for a Side Car).

Tools and Equipment for Garnishing Part of the bartender’s job is to prepare the fruits and other foods used to enhance or garnish a drink. The importance of fresh, creative garnishes is discussed in Chapter 9, and the equipment required to make and FIGURE 4.24 A glass rimmer. Courtesy store them is fairly simple. First, the most common of Co-Rect Products, Inc., Minneapolis, garnishes—lemon and lime slices, stuffed olives and Minnesota. the like—are prepared in advance and stored, ready to use and easy to grab, in a multi-compartment condiment tray. Often the tray is mounted on some part of the underbar at the serving station. The tray should never

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A Bartender’s Toolkit Little things matter to good bartenders, and this means attention to details that require specific tools and products. The top bartenders have their own toolkits, just like other types of hardworking professionals have their toolboxes. Use an easy-to-clean, lightweight, portable container with a handle. You can bring your kit to work, use it, keep an eye on its contents, and take it home with you when your shift is over. A toolkit can also come in handy when you are asked to tend bar at an off-site, catered event. Over time, you add your own touches to the kit based on, for example, your own drink recipes and favorite tools. The following is a good starter list: 䡲 䡲

Bar spillage mats Cigar slicer

䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲

Cocktail shaker Cocktail strainer Small cutting board(s) Long-stemmed barspoon Muddler(s) Pourer tops Swiss Army knife Can and bottle opener Clean bar towels 16-ounce mixing glass Fruit paring knife Lighter Jigger(s) 24-inch stainless-steel ice scoop Wine corkscrew

Tools for From-Scratch Preparation Even if your bar is part of a restaurant, if your focus is on labor-intensive, high-end drinks made from scratch, the bar should have its own set of tools. You’ll be squeezing fresh juices and making purées, preparing infusions and heating syrups, and so on. The tools, and all necessary raw ingredients, should be stored in the bar if at all possible. Avoid commingling tools with the kitchen staff. Most tools can be purchased from a restaurant or bar supply house; the list of musthaves includes the following and is limited only by your imagination: 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲

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Apple corer Atomizer bottles Fine grater Food processor

䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲

Fruit squeezer Glass bottle containers Heating pans Hydrometer Infusion jars with spigots Ladles Large cutting board Melon baller Mortar and pestle Fruit and vegetable juicer Sharpening stone Snifter warmer Soda siphon Strainers (China cap, regular) Tincture bottles Vegetable peeler Whisks

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be located directly above the ice bin. Many health codes define this as a potential hazard because of the likelihood of dropping food into the ice. An alternative to the installed condiment tray is a plastic tray on the bar top or glass rail. Such a tray can be moved around at the bartender’s convenience, and can be cleaned more easily than one fixed to the underbar. If servers garnish the drinks, as is often the case, the garnishes must be on the bar top at the pickup station, as shown in Figures 4.2 and 4.3. A plastic condiment tray is shown in Figure 4.25. The tools for preparing condiments are few but important (Figure 4.26): 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲

Cutting board Bar knife Relish fork Peelers: zester, router, or stripper

FIGURE 4.25 A plastic condiment tray.

Courtesy of Co-Rect Products, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

A cutting board for the bar can be made of any surface material that will not dull knives, though rubber or plastic is usually best. Wood is the most pleasant surface to work on, but most health codes rate it a health hazard because it is hard to keep bacteria-free. A small board is all you need—and all you will have room for. A bar knife can be any small- to medium-size stainless-steel knife, such as a paring or utility knife. It is essential that it be stainless steel; carbon steel will

FIGURE 4.26 Cutting boards, bar knives, and zester. Courtesy of Co-Rect Products, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

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discolor, and the color will transfer to the fruit being cut. The blade must be kept sharp, not only to do a neater, quicker job, but because it will not slip—and will be safer. The bar knife in the picture has a serrated blade, which is especially good for cutting fruit. Knife handles should be made of heavy-duty rubber or plastic for sanitary reasons. A relish fork is a long (10-inch), thin, two-tined, stainless-steel fork designed for reaching into narrow-necked bottles for onions and olives. Some have a spring device that helps to secure the olive or onion firmly. The zester, router, and stripper are special cutting tools for making the twist of lemon that some drinks call for. These three tools peel away the yellow part of the lemon skin, which contains the zesty oil, eliminating the white underskin, which is bitter. In busy bars, there may be a wedger or wedging machine to speed up the slicing of citrus fruits into uniform, manageable chunks for garnishing.

Tools and Equipment for Serving The tools in this category make up a short and somewhat miscellaneous list, but these are important items that no bar could do without: 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲

Bottle and can openers Corkscrews Serving trays (round) Folios (checks or forms for taking drink orders, see Figure 11.9)

Most beers now sport screw-off caps, but there will always be those that require a bottle opener. Any type of bottle opener that is of good quality and does the job is acceptable. Stainless steel is best; it is rust-free and easy to clean. If the backbar area includes a bottle opener mounted on a wall or behind the counter, it’s a great convenience to add a cap catcher beneath it. The removable stainless steel box helps keep bottle caps from hitting the floor and becoming a safety risk. Bartenders occasionally have to open cans, too—we refer here, not to beer cans, but foods canned in aluminum—so a standard, hand-held can opener is a requirement. These openers must be kept clean, which is an easy task to forget. The first patent for a corkscrew was held by a British minister named Samuel Henshell. Today, there are many different kinds of corkscrews, or wine openers, a few of which are pictured in Figure 4.27. Each one is designed for one purpose: to extract corks from wine bottles. The screw, or worm, that penetrates the cork should be made of stainless steel and be 2¼ to 2½ inches long and about 3⁄8 inch in diameter, with a hollow core in the middle. (A solid core would chew up the cork.) The screw should have enough spirals to take it completely through the cork. A corkscrew with an elongated spiral and a longer pitch (distance) between the twists of the screw makes for easier insertion into the cork. The screw’s edges should be rounded, not sharp. The waiter’s corkscrew (several are shown in Figure 4.27a) is specifically designed for tucking into a pocket to open wines at tableside. This tool includes the corkscrew itself, a small knife for cutting the seal of the bottle, a fulcrum to grip the lip of the

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(a)

(b)

(c )

(d )

FIGURE 4.27 (a) A waiter’s corkscrew. Courtesy of Franmara, Inc., Salinas, California. (b) A wing corkscrew. Courtesy of PhotoDisc/Getty Images. (c) A Rabbit corkscrew. Courtesy of Metrokane Products and Pollen Design, New York, New York. (d ) A two-prong or ah-so corkscrew with sheath. Courtesy of Franmara, Inc., Salinas, California.

bottle, a lever to hold as you ease out the cork. Made of stainless steel, the waiter’s corkscrew folds like a pocketknife. In Figure 4.27b, the wing corkscrew commonly used in bars is so named because it has “wings” on either side that rise as the screw is twisted in. When the wings are pushed down again, the cork is pulled out. This corkscrew is fine for use at the bar, but it is probably too bulky for table service. The Rabbit Corkscrew was introduced in 2000 and has won major design awards for its unique mechanical principles. It may look intimidating at first (see Figure 4.27c), with 31 separate parts, but it is easy to master the use of the Rabbit. Its two side handles grab the top of a wine bottle and hold it firmly, and a third handle on top drives the corkscrew into the cork. Push the third handle down quickly, then lift it up just as quickly. Metrokane, the company that owns the technology, says the Rabbit can eject any cork in three seconds. A new Rabbit kit includes a spare worm because repeated use through foil or bottle seals can dull this tool and compromise its effectiveness. The device pictured in Figure 4.27d is nicknamed the ah-so. It is a simple pair of prongs that straddle the cork. You place the prongs on the side of a cork, then rock them side to side until they are wedged into the neck of the bottle, between glass and cork. Then the ah-so is twisted and pulled gently, to bring the cork out whole without a puncture in the middle. People who learn how to successfully use the ah-so swear by it, but it can be slow and frustrating for those who have not perfected the technique.

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For high-volume operations, you will want to invest in an uncorking machine. These machines are mounted on a countertop with a vise clamp and wingnut. The spiral cork is inserted into the cork, which is extracted from the bottle in a single downward stroke. Uncorking machines are between 12 and 22 inches in height. You will need round serving trays in two sizes: 14-inch and 16-inch (see Figure 4.28). Bar trays should have cork surfaces to keep the glasses from slipping.

FIGURE 4.28 Serving trays. Courtesy of Co-Rect Products, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

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GLASSWARE Let’s begin with a brief discussion of what you will do with glasses at the bar, including washing, storing, frosting, rimming, and so on. At a typical bar, glasses are everywhere, posing a significant storage problem that must be addressed in the design phase of the entire bar area. It is important to decide exactly how many glasses you will need per bar shift, and plan accordingly for their storage, washing, drying, and clean “landing space” between uses. Stemware is sometimes stored in overhead racks, arranged according to type, although this has fallen out of favor in recent years with health inspectors and may no longer be legal in some areas. When glasses are set upside down on drainboards, ridged shelves or heavy plastic netting are health-code requirements. These allow air to reach the insides of the glasses and keep bacteria from growing there. You must resist the temptation to put towels under netting to catch the runoff from wet glasses because this cuts off the air, negating the effect and making the problem worse. Unused glasses must be kept dust-free, both for appearance and for sanitation reasons. The glassware you use in your bar should be considered an element of your overall décor and concept. It has a subtle but clear impact on your customer’s perception of the bar’s style, quality, and personality. A great deal of tradition is involved in cocktail service. Using the proper size and shape of glass for a drink indicates that you know your business and signals a respect for that tradition to your guest. Glassware can be a merchandising tool, stimulating sales with subtle or flamboyant variations: tall, sleek, frosted pilsner glasses for beer; oversized glasses with thin, delicate rims for certain wines; colorful, whimsical, oversized goblets for Margaritas; attractive mugs for specialty coffee. In some places, glassware is not used only for drinks—you are likely to see gourmet appetizers such as shrimp cocktail or ceviché served in eye-catching, oversized martini glasses, or fresh fruit and ice cream looking especially elegant in a large brandy snifter. As Americans become more sophisticated about their dining preferences, glassware manufacturers try to stay one step ahead of the trends. Wine service has seen the greatest impact. Riedel Crystal claims one of the company’s forefathers was “the first to recognize the effect of the shape of a wineglass on the sipper’s perspective and drinking pleasure.” Riedel began in the 1970s to develop a “gourmet glass” series with the Association of Italian Sommeliers. The series began with ten glass sizes and has now grown to 43, including specialty glassware for sipping high-end tequila, sherry, port and Cognac, and eight different aperitif glasses.

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One trend that probably has “legs,” to use appropriate wine terminology, is the use of oversized glasses for serving wines. A large bowl, filled about halfway with wine, leaves plenty of room for swirling the wine without spilling to develop its aroma. Even the Olive Garden, very much a casual dining chain, sells more than 6 million bottles a year and serves red wines in a 17½-ounce, Italian crystal goblet, white wines in a 15-ounce glass. Some restaurants order two sets of stemware, one for wine-by-the-glass programs and bottles under $40; the other, for higher-dollar wine sales. Still others argue that more wine would be sold if the pretense and formality of stemware were eliminated altogether. Another way to look at glassware is for its efficiency in terms of cost and portion control strategy. An example, according to beverage consultant Tim Johnson in Larkspur, Colorado, is that taller glassware, slightly flared at the top, means most ounces of volume are located at the top of the glass. How does this affect profit? It makes the glass look full and satisfies the customer. His example (in the June 2, 2009 issue of Nightclub & Bar magazine): “A traditional, 16-ounce pint glass with a 1-inch head yields 12.5 ounces of beer, while a straight cylindrical 16-ounce beer mug with a 1-inch head yields 14.5 ounces of beer. The difference is two ounces of beer profit to you for every beer served.” For casual dining or other informal establishments, stemware has become strictly functional, or even optional. You must determine whether you will be gaining or losing wine sales by adopting the more informal attitude. The point: Your customers are driving today’s glassware trends at both ends of the spectrum, and yours should match the overall mood of the establishment. Martini glasses are another trendy family, since a good Martini has always been an equal combination of good spirits and great presentation. Its top-heavy style became popular in the 1940s; it was a little bit hard to drink from, but showy and distinctive in design. Just to give you an idea of what is available, Figure 4.29 displays three

FIGURE 4.29 Martini and Margarita glasses.

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Courtesy of PhotoDisc, Inc.

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different Martini glasses from the same manufacturer, and there are dozens more. Smart bar owners and bartenders know that drink presentation makes a pleasant experience more memorable and reflects both the mood and the personality of the bar itself. As microbrewed beers have become more popular, connoisseurs also have come to expect a variety of beer glasses. Heavier lager beers are generally served in heavy glass mugs with handles; lighter pilsner beers have more carbonation and are best showcased in a tall, narrow glass that widens at the top. For ales, including stouts and porters, a straight-sided, traditional pint glass with a wide mouth enables guests to smell and sip. Customers who know their beers will appreciate the fact that you know how to serve them correctly.

Glass Terms and Types Glasses have three characteristic features: the bowl, the base or foot, and the stem (see Figure 4.30). A glass may have one, two, or all three of these features. The three major types of glassware—tumblers, footed ware, and stemware—are classified according to which of these features they have.

Bowl

Stem

Base or Foot

FIGURE 4.30 The parts of a glass.

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A tumbler is a flat-bottomed, cylindrical glass that is basically a bowl without a stem or foot. Its sides may be straight, flared, or curved. Tumblers are used for shorter drinks, drinks served on the rocks, and generally for drinks that are stirred rather than shaken. Various sizes and shapes of tumblers are known by the names of the drinks they are commonly used for: Old-Fashioned, rocks glass (for cocktails served “on the rocks”), highball, Collins, cooler, Zombie, and pilsner (see Figure 4.31). The typical tumbler is an 8-ounce glass. Glass jiggers and shot glasses are miniature versions of tumblers. Footed ware refers to a style of glass whose bowl sits directly on a base or foot. The bowl and base may have a variety of shapes. Traditional footed glasses include the short, rounded brandy snifter, the Pousse-café glass, and certain styles of beer glass (see Figure 4.32). Today footed ware is also popular for on-the-rocks drinks and highballs. In fact any type of drink can be served in a footed glass of a suitable size. Stemware includes any glass having all three features: a bowl, foot, and stem. Stemware, too, comes in a variety of shapes. Wine is always served in a stemmed

(a)

(b)

(c)

(e)

(d)

(f)

FIGURE 4.31 Tumblers: (a) Collins, (b) highball, (c ) Double Old-Fashioned, (d ) Old-Fashioned, (e ) rocks, and (f ) shot glasses.

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(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

FIGURE 4.32 Footed ware: (a) brandy snifter, (b) iced-tea glass, (c ) highball glass, (d ) beer glass, and (e ) Irish coffee mug.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

FIGURE 4.33 Stemware: (a) wine taster, (b) wineglass, (c ) Burgundy wineglass, (d ) tall flute, (e ) tulip flute.

glass, as is a straight-up cocktail or a straight liqueur, the latter in tiny, 2- or 3-ounce glasses. Certain shapes and sizes of stemware are typical of specific drinks, such as wine, sours, Margaritas, and Champagne (see Figure 4.33). Stemware, for obvious reasons, is the type of glass most easily broken, and you might as well plan for this when you place your glassware order. A fourth type of glass is the mug (see Figure 4.34). You can think of a mug as a tumbler with a handle or as a tall glass cup. The most common size (16 ounces) is usually used for serving beer, and smaller specialty mugs are used for coffee drinks. When used to serve beer, mugs are sometimes called steins. Mugs are appropriate for serving ales, but the lighter-style pilsner beers require a different type of glass, which is called a pilsner glass. This is a tall, footed glass designed to preserve beer’s natural effervescence. You’ll learn more about serving beer in Chapter 8.

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FIGURE 4.34 The frosty beer mug. When serving beer, try for a smaller frothy head, perhaps half the size of what is shown here.

How Glass Is Made Glass is made of very fine sand, called silica, that is mixed with soda, lime, and cullet, which is reused broken glass bits, and heated to temperatures of nearly 1,500°F. When it is in this pliable, super-hot form, the molten glass is either blown into its final shape by introducing air into it or pressed into a mold to shape it. Most commercial glasses are pressed and are known as pressware. After the glass is shaped, it is put into a warm oven to cool slowly, which is called annealing. The slow cooling stabilizes and strengthens the glass and removes any stress points that may have developed during shaping. After annealing, some glass goes through another step called tempering. The cooled glass is reheated, almost to its original high temperature, then blasted with cold air. The process “shocks” the glass and makes it more resistant to temperature extremes. If a glass is advertised as fully tempered, it means the entire glass underwent a tempering process; rim tempered means only the rim received this extra treatment. Most stemware is fully tempered; mugs or tumblers may be only rim tempered. A curved or barrel-shaped glass is more durable than a straight-sided glass, and a short, thick stem is sturdier than a thin, delicate one. You will notice that manufacturers make glass a little thicker at possible stress points. A rolled edge at the rim of a glass, or swirled or ribbed patterns, all indicate extra thickness.

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Glass Names and Sizes In bar terminology, glasses are typically named after the drink most commonly served in them, and that drink is related to glass size. Thus, a highball glass is typically 8 to 10 ounces, and a Collins glass is typically 10 to 12 ounces. When mixing a drink the bartender relies to a certain extent on the glass size. For a highball, for example, the glass is a measure of the amount of ice to be used and the amount of mix to be added. If the bartender uses the wrong size glass, the drink might be too weak or too strong. Before you purchase glassware for your bar, you must decide how strong a drink you will serve—that is, how much spirit you will use as your standard drink: such as 1 ounce, 1¾ ounces or 1½ ounces. Then you can select glass sizes that will produce the drinks that look and taste right to your customers.

Purchasing Glassware When you select glasses, size is a better guide than the name of the glass, since a glass with a specific name will come in many sizes. Figure 4.35 gives the range of sizes offered by one manufacturer for various types of glasses in various styles. In addition, nearly all glass types come in giant sizes for promotional drinks. Buy glass sizes that you will never have to fill to the brim, to avoid spills. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, wineglasses to be used in meal service should be filled only halfway so the drinker can swirl the wine around and appreciate its bouquet. A brandy snifter serves the same purpose: No matter how big the glass, only 1 to 2 ounces of brandy is served, so the customer can savor the aroma. Most bars buy only a few of the different types and sizes of glass. One type and size can work for Old-Fashioneds, rocks drinks, and highballs; similarly, one cocktail glass can serve for straight-up cocktails including sours, and for sherry and other fortified wines. On the other hand, if you are building a connoisseur’s image, you will probably want the traditionally correct glass for each type of drink, and you will want several different types of wineglasses, to serve different wines with each course of an elaborate dinner, including tall, thin champagne flutes. Keep in mind that the flat, coupe-style Champagne glass—said to be modeled after the shape of Marie Antoinette’s left breast—is back in style in some bars. It had fallen into disfavor in the 1980s for exposing too much bubbly to the air too quickly, causing the wine to lose its effervescence too soon. Trendsetters say that the solution is to down the Champagne like a shooter rather than sipping it! How many glasses should you buy? For each type of drink, you may want two to four times as many glasses as the number of drinks you expect to serve in a rush period. Four times would be ample; two times would probably be enough for restaurant-table service only. Because there are so many variables, you have to be your own judge, based on your clientele and rate of use. When making your glass selection, remember that glassware is among the most fragile equipment you will be using. Consider the following: weight and durability; heat-treated glass, if you use a mechanical dishwasher; design (buy glasses that do not need special handling—flared rims break easily; rounded edges are easier to clean). Of course, consider the breakage factor in figuring the quantity you need. Remember

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SELECTION OF GLASS SIZES Glass

Available Sizes (oz)

Beer Brandy, snifter Brandy, straight up Champagne Cocktail Collins Cooler Cordial Highball Hurricane Margarita Old-fashioned Rocks Sherry Sour Whisky, straight shot Wine

6 to 23 51/2 to 34 2 31/2 to 81/2 21/2 to 6 10 to 12 15 to 161/2 3/ to 1 4 7 to 101/2 8 to 231/2 5 to 6 5 to 15 (double) 5 to 12 2 to 3 41/2 to 6 5/ to 3 8 3 to 171/2

Zombie

12 to 131/2

Recommended Size (oz) 10 to 12 Your choice from middle range 2 41/2 or largera 41/2 for 3-oz drink 10 to 12 15 to 161/2 13/4 , or use 2-oz brandy glass 8 to 10 Your choice for specialty drinks 5 to 6 7 5 to 7 3 for 2-oz serving 41/2 for 3-oz drink 11/2 to 3 depending on shot size 8 to 9 for 4-oz serving; larger sizes OK Your choice

a

The tall flute is recommended over the broad shallow bowl

FIGURE 4.35

to choose existing styles and patterns so that they will continue to be available for replacements in months and years to come. If your bar is in a trendy neighborhood or tourist area, you might also consider take-home glassware. In cities like New Orleans and Las Vegas, sometimes the glassware is included in the price of the drink, emblazoned with the logo of the bar or restaurant as a keepsake for visitors. Souvenir beer mugs and glasses are also popular in brewpubs.

Care of Glassware Glasses break for two main reasons: mechanical impact (when glass hits another object, causing it to crack, chip, or shatter) and thermal shock (when a quick, intense temperature change cracks or shatters the glass). Obviously, you can not prevent breakage entirely, but you can reduce it significantly by implementing a few commonsense handling practices:

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Train your staff members to never stack, or nest, glasses one inside the other, and not to pick up multiple glasses at the same time, for example, putting one on each finger. Do not mix glasses with plates and silverware, either in bus tubs or on dishracks to be washed in a dish machine. Use separate bus tubs, as well as special dishracks made for glassware. Never use a glass for scooping ice. Always use a plastic scoop in the ice bin; metal scoops are more likely to chip a glass rim. Be aware of sudden temperature changes and their impact on the glass. Do not pour hot water into an ice-cold glass or vice versa. Keep enough inventory on hand so that you’re not forced to use hot glasses directly from the dish machine. Give them time to cool off first. Finally, keep in mind that a chipped or cracked glass is a broken glass. A crack or chip might cut a customer’s lip or cause a drink to spill. Throw it out.

POINT-OF-SALE TERMINALS The cash register was invented by a bar owner and first used in a tavern in 1879 and, since then, it has been a necessity at the bar. The first version, known as “Ritty’s Incorruptible Cashier,” was a slow, noisy, hand-operated machine with a pot belly and a shrill bell that rang when a crank was turned to total the sale and open the cash drawer. In contrast, today’s computerized options are slim, quiet, and lightning fast. In a small enterprise, a single electronic cash register (ECR) unit at the bar may be all that is necessary. Although its data-processing capability and its storage capacity or memory will be limited, the simplest system allows the user to ring up each sale and, at the end of the day, print out a report that totals whatever data you have programmed it to record. The main difference between a cash register and the higher-tech point-ofsale (POS) system is how it is used. Rather than only collecting the money when customers are finished, servers also enter their orders on the POS system, giving the bar owner quite a bit more knowledge of (and control over) daily operations. So, most bars of any size will opt for a POS system. It consists of the following components: 䡲

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A cash drawer. The old “register” hasn’t quite vanished—someone still has to collect money and credit card receipts in a secure place. A touch-screen monitor, where servers enter their orders. These may be individual, hand-held electronic order pads carried to the table by the server, or a terminal at a wait station used by several servers. In a wait station, the general rule is one terminal for every 3 to 5 servers, so they don’t have to stand around too long on a busy night, waiting to input orders. Small printers, to print out order tickets at the bar or in the kitchen, and/or print receipts for customers. Thermal printers are not recommended in kitchens because exposure to heat can make the ticket impossible to read.

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The computer that runs the POS system, known as a central processing unit (CPU). In some systems, the touch-screen and computer are combined in a single unit.

From their earliest incarnation as cash registers, these machines have always performed two basic functions: to record sales and to add and total them on a report that becomes a master record. No matter how electronically sophisticated the hospitality industry becomes, that has not changed. A touch-screen monitor will contain a set of keys (or buttons) used to record sales in dollars and cents. Another set of keys or buttons represents sales categories, such as spirits, wine, beer, soft drinks, food, tax, or anything else the operation needs or wants to figure separately. There may be a third set of keys or buttons, representing different bartenders or serving personnel. Keys that have been programmed in this way are known as presets. Most POS systems are highly customizable. Some bar/restaurant combinations opt to have separate systems, one for food and one for beverages. On some POS units, each key controls a cash drawer, so that each person is responsible for his or her own take. Each unit stores an item-by-item transaction record, and can also total individual categories of data. In some places, the bar’s cash register does not always handle cash; instead, the customer pays a cashier rather than the bartender or server. Credit card processing is an additional critical function. No matter what the system, and no matter how or where payment is made, the responsibility for recording each bar sale remains at the bar. Recording the type and cash value of every item sold is the starting point of the control system by which the bar tracks its sales, costs, and liquor inventory to determine whether everything adds up. The daily sales tallies can be used to create the source documents for all the reports sent to the state liquor control board. The kinds of information required vary from state to state and will determine the basic categories to be programmed into the system. POS terminals can also gather and tabulate sales-related data in many other useful ways. They can record the time of the sale and the server involved, along with the drink served. They can compare the liquor used in a given period with the liquor remaining in inventory. They can even function as a time clock on which employees punch in and out. In short, they are more accurate and more efficient, and people need far less training to operate them. POS systems also provide tighter controls over losses and supply data to watch and analyze operations daily, instead of weekly or monthly. Of course, the more sophisticated the system, the higher its initial cost. For large operations and chains, the cost savings and the instant processing of vital data make a large investment well worth the money. A central computer system can also manage administrative functions, including payroll and accounting. Despite the complexity of a POS system, you might be surprised to learn how easily it can be outwitted. The bartender’s time-honored saying, “Make a drink, enter a sale,” should be a mandatory part of bar employee training. Each and every sale must be accounted for. Each and every drink must be accounted for. This is the only way that “free drinks” and the resulting cost control problems can be avoided. Ask about the security features of any software you purchase—those who would seek to steal from you may know enough to bypass them. Choose POS software that keeps

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FIGURE 4.36 The screen of a POS system is programmed for easy use.

Courtesy of ASI/Restaurant Manager, Silver

Spring, Maryland, www.rmpos.com.

the last transaction on the screen until the next sale is entered. Choose a pole display option, where the sale is seen on both sides of the bar. At the very least, be sure your sales policy requires a printed receipt for all cash transactions and those that require change be made to a guest. An additional security responsibility is to your customers who pay by credit card, to protect their cardholder data that may be stored in your system from hackers who would use it. Restricting access to the system with passwords and authentication codes is a start. Another important guideline for choosing a POS system is your ability to upgrade it as new options and new technology become available. Read the websites and blogs of the companies that develop these systems—they may tout their own products, but they also will provide good background information about industry trends. Compare your software and hardware to a laptop or PC and it is easy to see that, in 10 years’

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time, things will change. If you’re going to make this kind of investment, be prepared to keep up with it.

GENERAL EQUIPMENT GUIDELINES Finally consider the following general equipment guidelines.

Look for Quality It is very good business sense to invest in high-quality equipment for your bar. This is true across the board, from the large underbar units, to the jiggers, pourers, and wine and cocktail glasses. There are a number of reasons why: 䡲

Durability: High-quality equipment will last longer and will better withstand the wear and tear of a high-speed operation. For example, heavy-gauge surfaces will resist dents, scratches, and warping. Heavy-duty blenders will better survive the demands of mixing frozen drinks. High-quality glasses will break less easily than thin, brittle ones. Function: High-quality products are less likely to break down. Breakdowns of any kind hamper service and give a poor impression of your operation. If your pourer sticks, you have to stop and change it. If your corkscrew bends, you may crumble the cork and lose your cool as you present the wine, or the customer may refuse it. If your icemaker quits, you are in real trouble. Repairs or replacements can be frustrating, time-consuming, and costly. High-quality products, moreover, usually come with guarantees. Appearance: High-quality products are usually more pleasing to the eye and are likely to maintain their good looks longer. Cheap glassware becomes scratched and loses its gleam. Cheap blender containers get dingy looking, as do work surfaces. Since much of your equipment is seen by your customers, it is important that it project an image of quality, cleanliness, and care. Ease of care: High-quality equipment is likely to be better designed, as well as better made. This means smooth corners, no dirt-catching crevices, and dentresistant surfaces that clean easily. All together this makes for better sanitation and better appearance.

Like everything else in life, quality cannot always be judged by price. This discussion is not to imply that you should go “top shelf ” all the way; you will certainly not buy lead-crystal glassware unless your entire operation sustains this level of luxury. For equipment quality, examine weights or gauges of metals (the lower the gauge, the thicker the metal); energy requirements, the horsepower of generators; the insulation of ice bins and refrigerated storage; and manufacturer’s warranties and services. Consider the design features of each item in relation to its function, size, shape, and capacity, as well as in relation to needs.

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Keep It Simple The number of bar gadgets available today, both large and small, is mind-boggling. They range from trick bottle openers to computerized drink-pouring systems that cost many thousands of dollars. Each has its bona fide uses, and some are highly desirable for certain operations. But the wise buyer will measure his or her purchases by these criteria: 䡲 䡲 䡲

Does it save time or money or do a better job? Is it worth the time and money it saves? Is it maintenance-free? If not, how upsetting will it be to the operation if it malfunctions? If it needs repairs, is local service available?

It is easy to go overboard on hand tools; there is a gadget on the market for every little thing you do. It is better not to clutter up your bar with tools that you seldom use. On the other hand, it is wise to have a spare of every tool that is really essential, from blenders to ice scoops. This way no time will be lost if something breaks or malfunctions. Keep the spares handy in a place that is easily accessible in emergencies.

SUMMING UP Bar equipment must be suited to the drink menu of an enterprise, just as kitchen equipment must appropriately service a food menu. All equipment must meet health department sanitation requirements and must be kept in top condition, with special attention to temperatures and pressures and the right conditions for proper functioning. It is easy to forget that these small details affect such issues as the taste and the head on a glass of draft beer, the loss of bubbles in carbonated mixes, and the rate of production of an icemaker, but they matter as much as the initial selection of equipment. Typical questions bar owners must answer include: Should my bartenders pour by hand or use an automatic liquor-dispensing system? What types of, and how many, blenders do I need, or should I buy or rent a frozen-drink dispenser? Should bartenders or barbacks wash glasses by hand or use a glasswasher? What types of cube ice will best suit the types of drinks on the menu? What should the capacity of the ice machine be, and where will I place it? Do I understand how a basic refrigeration system works? (This is important to know because beer and some other items require constant refrigeration.) At least a dozen tools, called smallware, make up the bartender’s arsenal. These enable him or her to make garnishes, measure, pour, stir, strain, and complete other necessary tasks. Bottle and can openers and good corkscrews are also critical, as are cutting boards that are easy to sanitize between uses. The right equipment, arranged for maximum efficiency and used and maintained with respect for its function, can be one of the best investments a bar owner can make. Three additional major considerations are: the proper types of glassware to complement the drink menu, and how to wash and store them.

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A POS system is necessary in most bars to accurately record all sales, but today’s systems are easy to use and easy to program, allowing the bar owner to glean much more information from them. From guarding against theft to tracking sales of individual items to preparing reports for regulatory agencies, computerization has significantly minimized the tedium of paperwork.

POINTS TO PONDER 1. For what types of beverage service would an electronic pouring system be considered appropriate? Where would it be inappropriate? Give reasons for your answers. 2. What are the essential pieces of equipment that make up a pouring station? 3. List and describe three considerations for purchasing a POS system. 4. Why is the type of ice so important to the taste of a drink? When might you need more than one type of ice? 5. In what situation would you buy fully tempered glasses? What about rim tempered glasses? 6. Why is the glass in which a drink is served important to the taste? 7. Add your own flair to your personal Bartender’s Toolkit. What is in it, other than the starter list on page 152? Why? 8. Explain the difference between a premix and a postmix soda-dispensing system, and cite the advantages of each. 9. Where does the term well brand come from and how does it differ from a call brand? 10. What guidelines would you use in deciding what equipment to buy for a brandnew bar?

TERMS OF THE TRADE ah-so aldehydes annealing bar knife barspoon bar strainer base (foot) beer box (tap box) blender (bar mixer) bottle chiller bottle wells

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bowl call brands cap catcher carbonator central processing unit (CPU) chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) cobra gun cocktail station (cocktail unit, beverage center)

compressor condenser condiment tray cullet dispensing tower electronic cash register (ECR) evaporator expansion valve filler cap flaker (flake-ice machine)

flexhose foot footed ware funnel frozen-drink dispenser (cocktail freezer, slush freezer) fruit squeezer glass brushes glass froster glass rimmer

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glasswasher gravity-feed machine hand shaker (cocktail shaker) hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) ice chest (ice bin) ice crusher icemaker ice scoop ice tongs inlet chiller jigger

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jockey box long shot mixing cup (mixing steel, mix can) mixing glass muddler (muddling stick) mug overrun pilsner glass point-of-sale (POS) system pole display postmix system pourer prechill function premix system

preset keys pressware refrigerant refrigeration circuit refrigeration cycle relish fork rim tempered router sanitizing shake mixer (spindle blender) short shot shot glass silica smallware speed rail standard (tap)

stein stem stemware stripper tempering (fully tempered, rim tempered) thermal shock tumbler waiter’s corkscrew wedger well brands (house brands, pouring brands) wing corkscrew worm zester (router)

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n the United States, 2008 was not just a tough year for investors; it also was the worst year for distilled spirits sales since the mid-1990s. Liquor sales grew only 1.3 percent, their slowest pace in more than 12 years, and sales of spirits in bars and restaurants fell for the first time since 1995, by 2.2 percent, according to Impact Databank and the Distilled Spirits Council. Whenever sales are sluggish, an oft-cited reason is that price-conscious consumers perceive liquor as more expensive than beer or wine. However, slowdowns also prompt an immediate response from distillers and marketers trying to refocus customers’ attention. By summer 2009, the large liquor conglomerates (companies like Brown-Forman, Diageo and Fortune Brands) had formulated and were releasing “prepared cocktails”—premixed, boxed or bottled drinks, such as Mojitos, Margaritas, spiked sweetened teas and lemonades. The companies theorized that more people would entertain at home to save money, although they would not necessarily want to learn how to mix their own drinks. (See? A good bartender will always be in demand.) Some also began introducing different bottle sizes to offer consumers more choices—smaller and/or larger, as either can be touted as money-saving. Savvy bar owners know there will always be ups and downs in the economy. The more they know about the spirits they sell, the better they can analyze new offerings and stock their wells with just the right mix of products, traditional and trendy. This chapter is a good place to start. It examines the various kinds of spirits: how they are crafted and how they differ, why some cost more than others, where they come from, and all sorts of incidental information that makes this industry so interesting. THIS CHAPTER WILL HELP YOU . . .

䡲 Distinguish between fermented and distilled beverages and identify them on your shelves. 䡲 Select the types and price ranges of spirits that fit your clientele. 䡲 Define “proof” and relate it correctly to alcohol content. 䡲 Understand the variables in distillation and their importance to the finished product. 䡲 Become familiar with each of the spirit types commonly served from today’s bar. 䡲 Define and explain such familiar but mysterious terms as: bottled in bond, aged in wood, sour mash, single malt, London dry, neutral spirits, VSOP, and more. 䡲 Serve each type of spirit correctly and profitably—even absinthe! 䡲 Increase sales of after-dinner drinks.

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nother, more hopeful trend that defies a depressed economy is the blossoming of a high-quality craft distilling industry in the United States. Across the country, entrepreneurs are filing applications with their state governments and investing an average of $600,000 to make and market their own niche products. There are now single-malt whiskeys from Virginia aged with local fruitwood chips; Idaho vodka made with Idaho potatoes; absinthe and grappa made in copper stills imported from Portugal to Washington State, and many more. In 2009, Tennessee changed its laws to encourage craft distilling, citing the potential boost for tourism and local agriculture’s role in providing the raw ingredients in addition to the new small businesses that would be created. Washington’s law allows bargain prices for a craft-distillery license but requires that at least 51 percent of the ingredients are made or grown in the state, making the results truly local products. At this writing, there are about 160 craft distilleries around the nation, up from 20 just seven years ago. For any bar owner, it is worth keeping an eye on these developments, checking out and doing business with the local gems in your area. Customers and visitors alike will appreciate the regional loyalty.

TYPES OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES All beers, wines, and spirits are alcoholic beverages. An alcoholic beverage is any potable, or drinkable, liquid containing ethyl alcohol. It might have as little as ½percent alcohol by volume, or as much as 95 percent. (The ½ percent was a figure chosen by the federal government at the time of the Prohibition Amendment, as it was groping to define an intoxicating beverage. At ½ percent you would have to drink 4 to 5 gallons of a beverage to become intoxicated, but the figure remains in the government’s definition.)

Fermented Beverages All alcoholic beverages begin with the fermentation of a liquid food product containing sugar. Fermentation is the action of yeast upon sugar in solution, which breaks down the sugar into carbon dioxide (CO2) and alcohol. The CO2 gas escapes into the air. The alcohol, a liquid, remains behind in the original liquid, which then becomes a fermented beverage. Beers and wines are fermented beverages. Beer and ale are made from fermented grains. Wines are made from fermented grapes and other fruits. Our ancestors fermented honey, dates, rice, milk, sugarcane, molasses, palms, peppers, berries, seeds, and pomegranates, all to create alcoholic beverages. Any liquid with sugar in it could be fermented if yeast were available to start the action. When the sugar is converted to alcohol and carbon dioxide, the result is a beverage with an alcohol content of about 4 to 14 percent, depending on the amount of sugar in the original liquid.

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Distilled Spirits If you can separate the alcohol from a fermented liquid, you will have what you might think of as the essence, or the spirit, of the liquid. This is exactly what spirits are and how they are made. The process of separation is called distillation. The liquid is heated in an enclosed container, called a still, to a temperature of at least 173°F (78.5°Celsius). At this temperature the alcohol changes from a liquid to a gas, which rises. Most of the water of the liquid remains behind; water does not vaporize until it reaches its boiling point of 212°F (100°C). The gas is channeled off and cooled to condense it back into a liquid. The result is a distilled spirit, or simply a spirit. All the spirits we use today are made by this basic process, diagrammed in Figures 5.1 and 5.2. Historians are not certain how long the distillation process has been in use, but they credit the Chinese with distilling spirits as far back as 1000 B.C. In addition, although the Greeks and Romans did not use the process, they at least knew about it. If we limit our discussion to the Western (mainly European) experience, we must credit the Arabic people for introducing distillation to Europe through the Iberian Peninsula and into the area that is now Spain. Ironically, the Arabs were forbidden to drink alcohol for religious reasons. Instead, they distilled perfume from flowers and used the process to produce a powdered

FIGURE 5.1 Distillation: Fermented liquid is heated in a still. Alcohol vapors rise and are carried off through a coil that passes through cold water, condensing them into liquid.

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Mash Distilled spirit Distilled spirit

Analyzer

Rectifier

Superheated steam

FIGURE 5.2 A continuous column still. In the version shown here, fermented mash (gray) enters the rectifier column and flows downward through a twisting pipe surrounded by superheated steam. This hot mash is then pumped to the top of the analyzer column. Here it steeps down through perforated plates, meeting superheated steam entering from the bottom of the rectifier. There they rise again through perforated plates condensing as they are cooled by the mash descending in the twisting pipe. Then the condensed spirits are drawn off at their desired degree of alcohol content. Photo courtesy of Clear Creek Distillery, Portland, Oregon.

cosmetic for eyes that they called al kuhl, from the word kohl. It is the word from which alcohol is derived. In Europe in the Middle Ages, alchemists experimented with distillation in an attempt to cure diseases or prolong life. These practitioners were equal parts scientist, philosopher, magician, and, some say, charlatan, who sold elixirs and potions about which great promises were made. Although their aqua vitae, which means water of life, was not quite the miracle drug they were looking for, it did gain respect as a medicine. When it was flavored to make it more palatable, people discovered that they liked it. Soon the technique of distilling was applied to all kinds of fermented products to produce much stronger beverages.

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Classifying Beverages The U.S. government has established Standards of Identity for the various classes of alcoholic beverages, that is, the types of spirits (gin, vodka, brandy, rum, tequila, the various whiskeys), types of wine, and types of malt beverages (beer and ale). For example, if a bottle contains Bourbon and is labeled as such, there is a Standard of Identity stating certain requirements for that type of product: what it is made of, how it is made, the type of container it is aged in, and its alcoholic content. These standards, rigidly enforced, produce a beverage with the distinctive characteristics that everyone recognizes as Bourbon. If the name is on the bottle, you will know what is inside because a federal inspector makes periodic compliance investigations at each distillery in the country. Imported products must meet similar standards in order to enter the country. These Standards of Identity were developed after the repeal of Prohibition as part of the strict control system imposed on the new beverage industry to avoid the chaos of the Prohibition era. The purpose of the standards is twofold: to provide the base for assessing and collecting federal taxes, and to protect the consumer. Beyond this the standards can help you to learn to read bottle labels so that you know what you are buying, and to understand the differences between similar products. The three beverage chapters in this book draw heavily on Standards of Identity.

Alcohol Content There are other differences between fermented and distilled beverages in addition to the way they are made. One is their alcoholic content. Beers and ales contain 2½ to 8 percent alcohol by weight (3.1 to 10 percent by volume). Table wines may be 7 to 14 percent by volume; aperitif and dessert wines, 14 to 24 percent, since they have a small percentage of added spirits. Spirits usually range from 35 to 50 percent alcohol by volume, with a few liqueurs as low as 18 to 20 percent and one or two rums as high as 75½ percent. (There are even neutral spirits available at 95 percent, but they are never used as bar liquors.) For spirits, you will see a number on the label and the word proof. Proof is a system of determining the alcohol content and, therefore, the relative strength of the beverage. It is also used as a base for collecting federal taxes on alcoholic beverages. The history of the term is rather colorful. It comes from the early days of distilling, when the distiller tested, or proved, the product by mixing it with gunpowder and setting it on fire! If the liquid didn’t burn, it was too weak. If it burned fiercely, it was too strong. The spirit that was “just right” for drinking (without the gunpowder) burned with a steady blue flame and turned out to be 50 percent alcohol, more or less. The other 50 percent of the liquid was water. Thus, the American proof standard was born: A 100 proof whiskey contains 50 percent alcohol by volume. (Take the percentage of alcohol, double it, and you get the correct proof number for that spirit.) As you might imagine, this was not an exact science.

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Today there are also very specific legal definitions of proof; for instance, a proof spirit is one that at 58°F weighs 12⁄13 of an equal measure of distilled water. At 58°F, this spirit has a specific gravity of .92308. It is a mixture of about 57 percent pure alcohol and 43 percent water. An instrument called a hydrometer is used to measure spirit strength. In the past proof was indicated by the same symbol used for degrees of temperature—80°, for example. Today U.S. law requires that the label on a liquor bottle list both alcohol content and proof, with the alcohol percentage by volume stated first, and the proof following in parentheses with the word proof spelled out— for example, “Alc. 40% by vol. (80 proof).” This labeling system is not as clear-cut as it might appear, however, because other nations have adopted their own proof systems. The other common ones are the British/Canadian proof system. The GayLussac (G-L) proof system used elsewhere in Europe is simply a statement of the percentage of alcohol by volume. To convert from one system to another, start with the G-L value (the percentageof-alcohol figure). To convert to the American system, multiply the G-L value by 2; to convert to the British system, multiply the G-L value by 7, then divide that answer by 4. Figure 5.3 compares the three systems of measure. It is the alcohol in any beverage that causes the intoxicating effect as it runs through human veins. Looking at the percentage figures, you might conclude that a 90-proof gin is 10 times as intoxicating as beer. Ounce for ounce this is true. Comparing percentages gives a statistical picture with very little meaning, however, since the typical serving size varies widely from one beverage to another. We will translate the statistics into the drinks you might be serving at the bar. A 12-ounce bottle of 4-percent beer would contain 0.48 ounces of alcohol. A 5-ounce serving of 12 percent wine would have 0.6 ounces of alcohol, or 25 percent more than the bottle of beer. A gin and tonic made with 1½ ounces of 80-proof gin would have 0.6 ounces of alcohol, which is the same amount as the glass of wine and 25 percent more than the beer. A Martini made with 2 ounces of the same gin and ½ ounce of 18-percent vermouth would contain 0.89 ounces of alcohol, which is 33 percent more than the gin and tonic and the wine and 85 percent more than the beer. Figure 5.4 condenses all this information. Comparing these beverage types you can see that alcohol content has a lot to do with the size of a serving. Imagine the consequences of pouring gin in 5-ounce servings as though it were wine. Obviously, more than tradition dictates a certain glass for a British/Canadian certain type of beverage—for example, why beer is Proof G–L System American Proof served in tall glasses and Martinis are served in small 175.2 200 100% ones (it still takes almost two beers to equal the alco87.6 100 50% hol in one martini). You can also understand why a 70.0 80 40% customer who is gulping Martinis will need to be 17.7 20 10% watched more closely for signs of intoxication than someone having a leisurely glass of wine or a bottle of beer with dinner. FIGURE 5.3 Three systems of measuring proof.

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A COMPARISON OF ALCOHOLIC CONTENT Drink

More than More than Wine (%) Gin-and-Tonic (%)

Alcoholic Content (oz)

More than Beer (%)

0.48 0.6 0.6

25 25

same

0.89

85

33

12 oz of 4% beer 5 oz of 12% wine Gin-and-Tonic with 11/2 oz of 80-proof gin Martini with 2 oz of 80-proof gin, 1/2 oz of 18% vermouth

33

FIGURE 5.4

Mixed Drinks A mixed drink is a single serving of two or more beverage types mixed together, or of one beverage type mixed with a nonalcoholic mixer. The cocktail and the highball are the two most common types of mixed drinks, but there are many others, such as coffee drinks, Collinses, and cream drinks. Most mixed drinks are made with spirits, although a few wines are used in wine spritzers and as cocktail ingredients, notably the vermouths. The most common use of spirits is in mixed drinks. The rest of this chapter takes an in-depth look at spirits, those inviting and expensive bottles that are so important to your profit that you have to keep track of every ounce.

SELECTING SPIRITS FOR THE BAR From casual family restaurants to fancy hotel bars, the hospitality industry is serving expensive libations to guests who are opening their wallets to pay the prices. Much like paying $4 for what once was “just a cup of coffee” by going to Starbucks (which also markets coffee liqueurs) or one of its many competitors, paying for an upscale drink is still an affordable indulgence for many Americans. It is a status symbol, of sorts, to order a super-premium spirit, and consumers’ perceptions of what constitutes superpremium has been skillfully massaged by multimillion-dollar advertising campaigns. The lack of consumer loyalty to any one drink or spirit category also provides companies with plenty of opportunities for introducing new products. An amazing

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number of new labels have flooded the market, each trying to claim its part of the open landscape. Often clever packaging is the prime marketing ploy; as of this writing, we have witnessed about a decade now of new, flavored vodkas in sleek, tall, frosted bottles, but the trend is getting a bit tiresome. Bartenders have to accommodate interesting new bottle designs that may be unwieldy, taking up more space on an already packed backbar. The rectangular Boodles Gin bottle, which is awkward to pour and store, is a good example. All the new spirit brands revolve around one principal character: the bartender. His or her role in determining which brands to use and which to ignore is more important than ever before. Every time a bartender asks, “What are you in the mood for?” and a guest replies, “I don’t know. Surprise me!” there is an opportunity to recommend a new brand.

Stocking Your Well Affordable, generic brands have been traditions in most bars and restaurants. “Why spend more for that fancy bottle?” their owners thought. However, there is a downside to pouring only bargain brands, especially if price is the bar manager’s sole consideration. It might be possible to cover up an inferior spirit in a mixed drink, but it will be exposed for what it is when it is served neat, straight up. Marketing muscle and creative advertising have convinced younger customers to focus on brand names and view generic labels with suspicion. Do the pennies you save make your bar more profitable if it cannot attract your target clientele and earn their return patronage? This is a tradeoff that every bar owner must consider carefully. The bar well can be viewed as its own three-tier system. At the highly competitive low tier, price is everything; there is little loyalty and almost no marketing influence on customers. The middle tier offers midpriced establishments (primarily casual restaurant and hotel chains) a chance to keep patrons happy while making the bottom line look good with reliable products that are priced right. The high tier is today’s hottest market; it is the home of premium and super-premium brands with a sense of exclusivity in their use, pricing, and marketing. No matter what type of bar you run, smart well management that harmonizes with your target market should be part of your plan. The following three situations offer some insight: 1. You own a neighborhood bar with value-conscious patrons. You have 50 calls a night for Bourbon and water, for which you charge $1 less than for a call brand. Your liquor sales rep convinces you to switch to Jim Beam as your well brand, but this upgrade clearly does not match your needs. Only about 5 guests per night order Jim Beam by name and are willing to pay extra for it—and now, here they are, getting the same product as everyone else. The appeal of ordering something special is gone. To them, the lower cost of a well drink is of no importance, but you have written off the extra profit from pouring a lesser-priced well Bourbon. 2. You own a nightclub with lines of “beautiful people” at the door. You would like to keep drink prices reasonable to continue to attract the trendy younger crowd, but you decide you want to offer a high-end well. Unfortunately, most of your patrons will neither notice nor appreciate this effort. In the crowd, they rarely get

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near the bar to even see what you are pouring. Honestly, they do not care; they come for the scene and good drinks, not necessarily high-end designer drinks. Without a lower tier well, your profits will take a beating on two-for-one specials, Ladies’ Nights, and other promotions. 3. You own a three-star restaurant in New York City, with a speed rail full of premium brands that are identical in price or quality to the special backbar pours asked for by name. If you offer the highest quality food and service, wine service, ambience and so forth, why would you cut corners and stock a low-tier well? In short, the well is an important profit center that should reflect the bar’s image and respond to the desires of its clientele. If that clientele knows what they want and can ask for it, the bartender should be able to pour it for them, exactly the way they want it. Trading up to premium spirits does not have to be an expensive transition if the change is planned to generate profits and increase sales volume. The extra expense can be covered either by slightly increasing the price of a well drink or by charging more for the competitive backbar name brands. An incremental price hike across the board can help you keep pace because some spirits categories spiral up in cost faster than others. Servers and bartenders take a little more pride in offering better-quality brands, and moving established brands to the well opens up backbar shelf space and inventory dollars for a few new products and high-end items. Spirits distributors are usually happy to train the staff as part of the upgrade. To determine whether or not to upgrade your house pours to premium pours, ask yourself these questions: 䡲

Are my customers label-conscious? Are they loyal to brands? Do they appreciate trends and being up to the minute? If they wear brand-name fashions and drive luxury cars, you’ve got your answer. Would an upgrade improve my bestselling drinks? If you sell mostly draft beer or your signature drink is the Frozen Strawberry Daiquiri, it’s probably not necessary to load the speed rack with premium liquors. Are the current house pours a liability? It is an unfortunate fact that most bar owners stock their wells and don’t think much about it after that. But now and then, sit down and taste-test the well brands against the most affordable premium brands. How do they compare? What do they say about your bar’s image?

Well brands are the workhorses of a bar, bringing home regular, reliable profits. Without low-tier spirits, high-volume clubs and neighborhood bars would have to raise prices and face the possibility of alienating their core clientele. For mid-tier and high-tier operations, the challenge is different but the outcome is the same: to cut costs by downgrading premium well selections to low-tier spirits risks running off spirit-savvy patrons.

HOW SPIRITS ARE MADE All spirits are alike in several ways. They are all distilled from a fermented liquid. They all contain a high percentage of alcohol in comparison to other alcoholic beverages: Most spirits are nearly half alcohol and half water, and 80 to 100 proof, with

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the exception of some liqueurs. However, there are several distinct and familiar categories of spirits. The primary differences between them are flavor and body. Each type has a characteristic taste: for example, whiskeys have a whiskey taste; gins, a gin taste; and rums, a rum taste. Categories of spirits have other taste variations, too: Bourbon whiskey, for instance, tastes very different from Scotch, and Irish whiskey tastes different from both. There are also taste differences between brands, and there are variations in body: full-bodied spirits and lighter ones. While federal law regulates what is put on a liquor bottle’s label, it requires almost no information about how the product was made or aged. What are the differences, and how do they affect the taste of the finished product? Three main factors determine flavor and body: the ingredients in the original fermented liquid, the proof at which it is distilled, and what is done with the spirit after distillation. To understand these factors, we need to look at the distillation process more closely.

Congeners At lower proofs there are more congeners and fusel oils in the spirit. Do not consider these detrimental to the quality of the product; they give some liquors (particularly whiskeys and brandies) their character. The core of the distillation process, as explained, is evaporating the alcohol by heating it until it separates itself from the fermented liquid by vaporizing. If this were the only element that vaporized at distilling temperatures, we would have 100-percent pure ethyl alcohol—a 200-proof spirit. It would be colorless and have a raw, sharp taste with no hint of its origin. The taste would be the same no matter what it was distilled from: for example, wine, grain, or molasses. Other substances may join the alcohol as it vaporizes, however. In addition to water, minute amounts of other volatile substances provide flavor, body, and aroma in the beverage. These congeners come from ingredients in the original fermented liquid. Chemically they have such identities as acids, other alcohols, esters, aldehydes, and trace minerals. In the product they translate into, for example, the smoky malt taste in Scotch, the full-bodied pungency of Bourbon, a hint of molasses in rum, and the rich aroma of fine brandy, and so on. One congener is amyl alcohol, commonly known as fusel oil. The dictionary defines it as an “oily, acrid and poisonous” mixture. However, a very small amount of fusel oil in alcohol imparts a distinctive flavor to whiskey.

Distillation Proof When the distillation temperature, the length of distilling time, the type of still, and other factors are varied, the amounts of water and congeners can be controlled. The higher the distillation proof and the less water used, the fewer the congeners and the purer the alcohol. Since the congeners are the flavorers, the flavor is less pronounced and the body of the spirit is lighter. Conversely, the lower the distillation

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WHICH NEW SPIRITS SHOULD YOU STOCK? You cannot carry every new spirit out there, and if you buy only those that your customers ask for, you will be at least one year behind your competition. Here is a step-by-step guide for sorting out the winners from the also-rans: 1. Be open-minded and critical. Taste everything that salespeople offer you. But taste every new spirit blind against one of your favorites in the given category, and taste them both at room temperature in a wineglass, without any mix or ice. During the comparison tasting, look for elements of smoothness and length of finish. Be aware that many distillers think you will be fooled by the addition of sugar or syrup. Sweetness can mask a poorly made spirit, but it leaves a cloying feeling in the mouth that is the opposite of the refreshing character of a great spirit. 2. Decide whether the new spirit is both different from and as interesting as your standard. If you’re convinced of the high

quality of a new spirit, show it to your colleagues and staff, then take them through a blind tasting to test it. 3. Before introducing a new spirit, discuss with your key personnel its style and what drinks might bring out its best attributes. This process will help you to make the final decision. Adding a new spirit to your current offerings can be tricky. If you’ve already taken on two or three new flavored rums and vodkas, is there any point in pushing another one onto your backbar? Your core staff must be enthusiastic about promoting the new spirit. 4. Develop specialty drinks for the new spirit and promote them. Remember that balance in a specialty drink list is as important as balance in a great drink. Don’t try to promote more than four to eight special drinks at a time. Source: Doug Frost, MS, MW, in Santé, the Magazine for Restaurant Professionals, Bennington, Vermont, October 2002.

proof, the more distinctive and pronounced the flavor of the spirit. To experience the difference, taste a vodka and a Bourbon: vodkas are distilled at 190 proof or above; Bourbons are usually distilled at 110 to 130 proof. The ideal in the world of liquor manufacture is to hit on the right combination of low distillation proof (with more flavor from congeners and fusel oils) and high bottled proof (not overly diluted with water). Spirits distilled from any material at 190 proof or above show almost no distinct characteristics. Therefore, they are known as neutral spirits or neutral alcohol, and are almost pure alcohol. If bottled, neutral spirits must be bottled at 80 proof or higher. These are used to make vodka and gin and to blend with spirits distilled at lower proofs. All neutral spirits, as well as many lower-proof spirits, are distilled in column stills (see Figure 5.2). It is also called a Coffey still (after Aeneas Coffey, its Irish creator who developed the process in 1832), or a continuous or patent still, and it is the type of still used to make most spirits in this country. The column still can be controlled to produce spirits at a wide range of strengths, up to about 196 proof. It consists of a

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tall column or a series of columns, in which the fermented liquid is heated by steam inside the still instead of heat from below. The alcohol vapors can be drawn off at various heights and redistilled in a continuous process. This makes it possible to separate nearly all of the water and congeners from the alcohol if neutral spirits are the goal, or to produce spirits at almost any lower proof. Another advantage of the column still is that it operates without stopping (hence the term continuous), thereby producing significantly larger amounts of product than its smaller cousin, the short, rounded pot still. Cognac, malt Scotch, Irish whiskey, tequila, and some rums, gins, and liqueurs are made in pot stills that have not changed much in design since the early days of distilling. Pot stills with copper pots are called alambic stills. (The ancient Moorish word for still was al-ambiq.) Pot stills are limited in the degree of proof they can achieve; consequently, the liquor they produce always has a great deal of flavor, body, and aroma. With the pot still, only one batch at a time can be made, and the pot must be cleaned after every use. This type of still is associated with high quality and exclusivity, creating the “microbrews” if you will, of spirits.

Aging, Blending, and Bottling A newly distilled spirit is raw, sharp, and biting. How is it turned into the mellow and flavorful product we sell at the bar? Our less sophisticated ancestors drank the spirit as it came from the still. The story goes that someone noticed that a batch of spirits shipped a long distance in wooden barrels tasted better on arrival than it did when it left the still. However the discovery was made, most of today’s spirits distilled at less than 190 proof are aged in wooden (usually oak) barrels for periods ranging from one year for some light rums to 20 or so years for choice brandies. The age on the label is the length in years that the distiller kept the product in the barrel. Longer time periods do not necessarily indicate a better-quality product; it’s all relative. Some Cognacs can improve for 25 years, while other spirits turn woody and bitter after only three years. Two things happen in the barrels. First the spirit undergoes changes as the congeners interact with air filtering through the porous wooden casks, then new congeners are absorbed from the wood itself, adding other flavoring agents. In due course all of the flavors are “married,” or blended, and mellowed to the desired final taste. Aging in wood adds color as well as flavor to the spirit. (We also discuss barrel-aging in the following section “Brown Goods: Whiskey and Scotch.”) Not all spirits are aged. Sometimes the sharp bite of a raw but flavorful spirit is part of its appeal, such as gin or kirsch. There are other means of producing or modifying flavors after distillation. One is by introducing new flavors, as is done with gin and liqueurs. Another is by blending two or more distillates, as is done with many whiskeys. A spirit taste may also be modified by filtering through charcoal, as is done in making vodka, or by other special ways of removing certain congeners. At bottling time spirits are diluted to drinking levels of taste, usually 80 to 100 proof, by adding distilled water. This lessens the intensity of the flavor but does not change it. When the term cask strength is used on a whiskey label, it means that no water was added

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to the spirit during bottling. It does not mean that the product was never diluted, just that it was not diluted during the bottling process. The term is a good sign that the whiskey will be flavorful. Once in the bottle a spirit does not undergo any further change. No matter how old it gets sitting on a shelf, it does not age since it is not exposed to air or wood. Consumers in the United States used to purchase their spirits, mostly whiskey, by filling their own jugs from a retailer’s or vendor’s casks. This practice kept packaging costs down, but it also enabled dishonest vendors to dilute the product. In the early 1800s the reputation of a liquor was made by its vendor, not by the distiller who created the product. This changed in 1870 when George Carvin Brown became the first distiller to bottle, label, and market his own Bourbon, known as Old Forester. Brown put it in clear, sealed bottles that were not easily tampered with. The idea caught on, and soon other distillers began bottling, sealing, and labeling their wares instead of selling casks to retailers. Today all of the spirits produced in the United States are stored and bottled in bonded warehouses. At bottling time the bottler checks for full bottles, correct proof, accurate labeling, and purity. If everything complies with all federal standards, the federal tax is paid and the bottle is sealed with a federal revenue stamp or, more often, with a tamper-evident closure of metal or plastic. This does not mean that the government guarantees the quality of the product. Many people mistakenly think the phrase Bottled in Bond on a label is a guarantee of quality conferred by the government. What it really means is that a given spirit meets certain conditions: It is straight (unblended), distilled at 160 proof or less at one plant by one distiller, aged at least four years, and bottled at 100 proof in a bonded warehouse. Since all spirits are now bottled in bonded warehouses, the phrase has lost much of its meaning. You can see that there are literally hundreds of ways in which a beverage that is roughly half alcohol and half water can be made in thousands of different varieties. Every ingredient, from the grape or grain, to the water and yeast, can make a difference in taste. Distillation methods are critical. Different aging times and conditions produce different tastes. The type of wood in the barrel, and whether the barrel is new or used, charred or uncharred has a definite effect on flavor. Blending and flavoring can produce an almost infinite number of products. All of these factors explain why each brand of each spirit is unique. Fortunately, there are only a few basic spirit types, and they are easily recognizable by general taste, aroma, and character. Let’s look at them in greater detail.

BROWN GOODS: WHISKEY AND SCOTCH The term brown goods is commonly used to describe spirits like whiskey, Scotch, and brandy because of their rich, earth-tone colors. In general, brown-goods sales have gradually declined over the years, perhaps because their hearty flavors and dark colors give the impression of a strong, high-proof drink. They are no higher in alcohol content than other spirits, however, and brown goods are mainstays of any bar and the backbone of many traditional drinks. In addition, the single-malt Scotches

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and BMSWs (a term you will soon learn) are among the most cutting-edge contemporary adult beverages. (An important note: You will see whiskey spelled with the “e” and without, in this book and on product labels. Both spellings are correct, but whiskey with an “e” is the American and Irish spelling (plural whiskeys); products without the “e” (whisky, plural whiskies) are most often from Scotland or Canada. There are a couple of exceptions: Old Times and Old Forester are American whiskeys that spell their name whisky, to pay homage to their Scottish roots. The four major whiskey-producing countries of the world are Canada, Ireland, Scotland, and the United States. Ireland was the first of these four to export its whiskey. After a root-rotting disease called phylloxera destroyed many French vineyards in the 1870s (and reduced wine and Cognac production), Scotland began exporting also. Scotch whisky has been the dominant product in this category ever since. The earliest spirit makers started with whatever fermentable product was readily available. In the southern European nations it was wine, already fermented and available. In such northern climates as Scotland and Ireland, grapes did not grow well, but grain did, and beer and ale were plentiful. As a result the first distillers started with a fermented mash of grain, similar to the early stages of making beer, and distilled that. They produced a raw, biting drink called uisgebeatha in Scotland and uisegebaugh in Ireland, Celtic translations of aqua vitae, water of life. Later the last syllables were dropped and the name became uisge and, eventually, “whiskey,” with or without the “e,” depending on origin. To get a grain product to ferment, an extra step is required to begin the whiskeymaking process: the starch in the grain must be converted to sugar. This is done by adding a malt. Malt is sprouted grain, usually barley. It contains an enzyme called diastase, which changes the starch to sugars. Malt, grain, and hot water are mixed together until conversion takes place. This is the mash. The liquid is then fermented by adding yeast. After fermentation it is distilled. Figure 5.5 shows the sequence of steps. Grain, malt, hot water

Mash tub (starch to sugar)

Yeast

Fermenter (sugar to alcohol) Cooler Blending process

Condenser

Mashing

Fermenting

Distilling

Condensing

Aging

Blending

Bottling

FIGURE 5.5 The process of making whiskey.

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Master distillers say the quality of the water and barley, as well as the locations of their distilleries, all make a difference in overall taste of the final product. (Location affects the flavors of the raw materials.) They also say the size of the still has a flavor impact: the smaller the pot, the more intense the whiskey that comes from it; the taller the still, the more delicate the whiskey. As with any other handcrafted product, dozens of variables are all points of individual opinion, professional pride, and heated debate! After distilling, the raw whiskey is stored in barrels (usually made of oak) for at least two years. (By Scottish law, Scotch whisky must be in barrels for a minimum of three years.) Again, the type and age of barrel affects the flavor. Whiskies stored in former sherry casks have a sweet, fruity aroma; those stored in Bourbon casks have a smoky aroma, sometimes reminiscent of vanilla or caramel. New barrels give off sharper, more pronounced aromas than older, well-seasoned ones. Theories about wood management, as it’s called, abound. Modern-day whiskey makers have strong preferences about the origin of their oak—American, French, Spanish—as well as what the barrels originally contained. Port, Madeira, Bourbon, and sherry casks impart their own specific nuances to the spirit, as does the type of oak itself. Some distillers age their wares in one type of barrel, then transfer the spirits to another type for the final 6 to 12 months of aging. Of course, the length of time for barrel-aging depends on the character of the raw product; some spirits take longer to mellow than others. For this reason, a 12-year-old whiskey is not necessarily better quality than, say, a five-year-old or one whose age is not given on the label. It all depends. For straight whiskies, the product manufacture ends at this point. The most common straight whiskeys include Bourbon, rye, and corn, each containing 51 percent or more of a single grain type. However, the majority of whiskeys marketed in the United States (this includes imports) undergo yet another process, known as blending. Whiskeys of different grains or different batches, different stills, or different ages are blended together, sometimes with neutral spirits, to produce the standard of flavor and quality that represents a particular brand. In short a blend is labeled with a brand name, not a distillery name. The use of neutral spirits in the blends (a common practice in the United States and Canada) is frowned upon by purists, who consider it an inexpensive way of diluting the true spirit. Usually the formula is a house secret, and the final blend is perfected by a skilled master blender. This person, responsible for making an appealing and consistent mix, is often referred to as a nose because he or she smells the whiskey’s aroma but rarely actually tastes it. The alcohol content of the spirit would overpower the taste buds after only a few sips. We will examine the different types of whiskey/whisky available for your bar by starting with a primer on Scotch.

Scotch Scotch is short for Scottish whisky—although Americans are just about the only people who use the shortened term for whisky made in Scotland. There are a number of categories of Scottish or Scotch whisky, and we defer to the Scotch Whisky

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Association’s definitions, proposed in June 2004, to help you decipher the various product labels. These are reprinted with permission of Wine Enthusiast magazine, where they appeared in the March 2005 issue: 䡲

Single Malt Scotch Whisky: A Scotch whisky distilled at a single distillery from water and malted barley, without the addition of any other cereals and by batch distillation in pot stills. Single Grain Scotch Whisky: A Scotch whisky distilled at a single distillery from water and malted barley, with or without whole grains of other malted or unmalted cereals, that does not comply with the definition of single malt Scotch whisky. Blended Scotch Whisky: A blend of one or more single malt Scotch whiskies with one or more single grain Scotch whiskies. Blended Malt Scotch Whisky (BMSW): A blend of single malt Scotch whiskies that have been distilled at more than one distillery. These may be known as vatted malts or pure malts. Blended Grain Scotch Whisky: A blend of single grain Scotch whiskies that have been distilled at more than one distillery.

The difference between malt whiskies and grain whiskies is much like the difference between ales and lagers, which you will learn more about in Chapter 8’s discussion of beer-making—that is, different ingredients are used to produce the end result, with slightly different methods and equipment as well. The malt whiskies are made in pot stills, mainly from sprouted barley that has been dried over peat fires, giving it a smoky flavor and aroma that carries over into the final product. Peat is a natural fuel made of decomposed vegetation; its rich organic content (and, therefore, the aroma it imparts when burning) may be moss and seaweed, or wood and heather, depending on where it was harvested. There is an ongoing debate in Europe about the peat-harvesting practices, specifically whether they are damaging the ecosystem (see Figure 5.6) When Scotch is described as peaty or having a “peat reek,” it refers to the smoky or ash-like character imparted either by the use of peat fires to dry the grain, or by the water from which the Scotch is made coming into contact with peat fields. The barley may be exposed to as few as 15 hours of peat smoke or as many as 40 hours. A few Scotch whiskies do not use peated barley. Malt whisky was born well before the fifteenth century, which is the first time Scottish records mention it. An old Scottish quip says that it was created to reward the Scots for having to endure the cold, wet climate of their homeland. The 1600s and 1700s were marked by continuous disagreements between distillers and the government over taxation of spirFigure 5.6 Peat harvesting is a controversial process its, and laws were enacted with the intent of putting because of the environmental damage it can cause. the smaller (fewer than 200 gallons) home producers This photo, courtesy of Christian Fisher, is from a moor out of business. This only ensured a lively smuggling in Germany used for peat production.

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market for their product. Finally in 1823 Scotland’s Parliament enacted more lenient laws. About 130 years ago, a Scotsman named Andrew Usher is credited with being the first to blend malt whisky and grain whisky to reduce its pungency. The grain whiskies are made chiefly from corn (or corn and wheat) and are distilled in column stills at around 180 proof, which is somewhat below neutral spirits but very light in flavor. Malt and grain whiskies are aged separately for several years and then blended, with as many as 30 or 40 (or more) different malt and grain whiskies in a given brand. Scotch became popular in the United States during the Prohibition years, when it was smuggled into the country from Canada, the Caribbean, and ships at sea. The earliest brands were dark, peaty, and strong. After the repeal of Prohibition, Scotland’s distillers began tailoring their products to the lighter American palate. Scotch got another boost in popularity when American soldiers returned from the World Wars having acquired a taste for it. A light-bodied Scotch is not necessarily light-colored—all Scotches have caramel (burnt sugar) added to ensure color uniformity—nor does light body mean low alcohol content. All Scotches are bottled at a minimum of 80 proof; most are 86 proof.

Scotch and the American Consumer Now that you are familiar with the categories of Scotch whisky, we can describe the role of each on the American bar scene. Interestingly, although the popularity of Scotch has waxed and waned over the years, this spirit has never lost its perceived prestige. The true Scotch drinker will not be satisfied with anything else, except perhaps a good Cognac. More than 95 percent of the Scotch whisky produced is blended Scotch whisky, identified by popular brand names with which any bartender should be familiar: Chivas Regal, Cutty Sark, Dewars, J&B, Johnnie Walker Red or Black, and White Horse. Scotch whisky’s appeal is subtlety—no sharp, distinguishing characteristics, just smoothness and consistency for a good drink. Grain Scotch whisky is not often sold in the United States, although Compass Box has an all-grain blend called Hedonism and Invergordon’s 7-Year-Old is a single-grain. Usually, though, grain Scotch is used in blending with malt Scotches. Single-malt Scotch is the only segment of the overall Scotch category that is showing growth, partly because of clever marketing that capitalizes on its super-premium, artisan’s image—tiny batches, third- and fourth-generation distillers, aging for a decade or more, and so on—and partly because Americans are drinking less but seeking higher-quality spirits. Single-malt Scotch drinkers are as enthusiastic as wine buffs about finding and tasting the rare and unusual brands, each named for the distillery where it is born. There are fewer than 100 single-malt distillers operating in Scotland today, and these can be grouped into several distinct regions: 䡲

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Lowlands malts are big and soft in body and aroma, perhaps a reflection of the region’s gentle terrain. Highland whiskies are as diverse as the area’s rugged geography, so it is impossible to characterize a single style. About half of Scotland’s single-malt distilleries are

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located in the area around Speyside, and their products are known for delicacy and elegance. Western Highland malts have light exposure to peat and a plumy aroma; Northern Highland malts are smokier and spicier in character. Island malts are from three islands: Isley, Orkney, and Skye. They are characterized as intensely smoky, with lots of peat reek, which as you now know, means heavy wood flavors and an alcoholic bite. Distilleries near the sea also produce whiskeys with a briny (salty) flavor or aroma. Laphroaig is among the best known of the Isley malt Scotches. Campbeltown malts also feature the briny characteristic, along with a hint of sweetness. This region contains distilleries that have three stills but stop the distillation process after “two-and-a-half.” Campbeltown brands are rare since there are only two distilleries where there once were dozens.

Remember that these are the bare basics of a very complex and proud industry. Within each region, finer distinctions exist. Taste-test them and you will soon see! Finally the BMSWs (vatted malts) are enjoying a first blush of attention from American consumers. The idea is not really new—these are blended malt Scotches—but their distinctiveness comes from the marriage of two or more of the prestigious single malts from different distilleries. The appeal is clear for consumers who might be interested in Scotch whisky but put off by the snobbishness that surrounds the passionate singlemalt crowd. If you are convinced that you will never be able to tell a Glenfiddich from a Glenfarclas from a Glenlivet, perhaps a BMSW is for you. Some of the names you may encounter are Johnnie Walker Green Label, The Famous Grouse 10-Year-Old Malt Whisky, Compass Box Eleuthera, and Michel Couvreur Unfiltered 12-Year-Old. The graying of the demographic base for Scotch whisky is well known, but singlemalt offerings can provide a bar with the chance to grow product acceptance by engaging a new generation of consumers: people ages 25 to 40, with disposable income, sophisticated palates, and a desire to learn more. The recent revival of classic cocktails and the increased availability of products from around the world are helpful trends. The Johnnie Walker brand reports that 20 to 30 percent of its consumer base is female. Scotch whisky producers also have launched promotional campaigns aimed directly at Latino and Asian consumers, who see this spirit in particular as a symbol of economic success in America. For the bar business, the social aspects of Scotch can be used in marketing events. In almost every city at least one bar prides itself on having the area’s largest variety of single malts; some bars have Scotch tastings, seminars, and dinners for hobbyists. For example, the Piper Pub Bar & Grill in Boise, Idaho, has capitalized on the trend by offering a “Scotch Club.” The bar stocks 40 single-malt Scottish whiskies, and participants track their “progress” in tasting two or three each time they visit. They’re given a prize when they’ve tasted all 40 brands.

Irish Whiskey Generally, Irish whiskeys are smooth alternatives to the heavier-flavored Scotches. In terms of liquor craftsmanship, Irish whiskey is in the same league as single-malt Scotches and single-barrel Bourbons. It has an ancestry going back to the twelfth

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century, when King Henry II’s troops invaded and found a well-established whiskey trade, begun by monks who had settled in the area in the Dark Ages. Today’s production techniques for Scotch whisky and Irish whiskey are similar, but with some differences that affect the flavor. The main difference is that the freshly malted barley in Irish whiskey is not exposed to peat smoke when it is dried, so there is none of the smoky taste of Scotch. Another difference is that Irish whiskey is made from a mixture of several grains, not just malted barley. A third is a triple distillation process that takes some of the Irish product through three separate stills (most pot-still whiskies go through two). Of course, whiskey making being the art form that it is, there are exceptions to each and every one of the statements just made. For example, in some Irish whiskeys, a small portion of the malt is either peat-smoked or distilled only twice, or the formula uses some malted and some unmalted barley. Like the one in Scotland, the legal requirement in Ireland is that whiskey be aged for three years, although most is kept in wooden barrels for 5 to 8 years, and some up to 20 years. The result is a particularly smooth, mellow whiskey of medium body. The traditional unblended Irish whiskey is seldom called for in America. The more familiar Irish brands are blended with high-proof grain whiskey, as in making Scotch, to create a lighter drink for today’s market. In the United States, Irish whiskey is the smallest category of distilled spirits, with less than 1 percent of the total market. However, it is a fast-growing category. The Atlanta-based chain Fado Pubs, Inc., has erected more than 150 Irish pubs in the United States, all with interiors built in the Emerald Isle and transported overseas. A younger crowd is learning that Irish whiskey’s triple distillation often makes it a smoother sip than the more assertive Bourbons and Scotches. Although whiskey making is big business in Ireland with dozens of brand names, there are just three distilleries. Cooley is the only independent distiller; Kilbeggan and Connemara are among its best-known brand names. Bushmills in Northern Ireland is owned by beverage giant Diageo. The Midleton distillery in the Republic of Ireland is owned by Irish Distillers—and Irish Distillers is owned by Pernod-Ricard of France. The Irish distillers have capitalized on the single-malt-Scotch craze by introducing single-malt Irish whiskeys (labeled pure pot still whiskey) as “lighter” alternatives. This has proven to be a smart move; after almost 20 years of slowly declining sales, Irish whiskeys are now on the increase again. As many as 20 brands are available in the United States, and the pack is led by Jameson’s Irish Whiskey, a Midleton-made brand with double-digit sales growth in the 2000s.

Bourbon Bourbon is the best-known straight (unblended) American whiskey. Unlike the way Bourbon makers regard the other brown goods in this category, they prefer to think of their product as “the golden spirit,” a palatable drink and versatile cocktail ingredient. To be called Bourbon, it must be: 䡲 䡲

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Made in the United States Unblended

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Distilled at 160 proof or less from a fermented mash of at least 51 percent corn (although most Bourbons contain more, up to 79 percent) Aged at least two years in charred (burned), new-oak containers

These requirements are spelled out in the federal government’s Standards of Identity. Most Bourbons are aged for four to six years, or for however long it takes to reach their desired mellowness. At the usual distillation proofs of 110 to 130, the whiskey produced has a strong flavor component and a full body. Also by law Bourbon does not have to be distilled in Kentucky, as long as it is made according to the federal regulations. If it is called Kentucky whiskey, however, it must be distilled there. The same law applies to Tennessee whiskey. The Bourbon-making business is replete with legend and colorful history. In 1776, patriot Patrick Henry helped craft and pass a Corn Patch and Cabin Rights law that gave settlers 400 acres of free land (in what is now Kentucky) if they would use it to build a house and grow grain. Corn was the easiest grain to grow and, as luck would have it, when combined with the mineral-free water that emerged from the area’s underground springs filtered through natural limestone, it made very good whiskey. This Bourbon was lighter than what had been produced in the Northeast. Bourbon was named for Bourbon County, Kentucky, which, in turn, was named for the royal Bourbon family of France who had supported American colonists during the Revolutionary War. The man credited with discovering the Bourbon style of whiskey making was Reverend Elijah Craig, a Baptist preacher, in the late 1700s. He was the first to burn the insides of his oak barrels—whether intentionally or accidentally is unclear—and found that the charred wood added a beautiful, amber color and distinctive taste to his whiskey. Bourbon makers have been burning the insides of the barrels ever since. In those days having whiskey on hand was an ordinary part of life, and many a farmer had his own still or raised grain for his neighbor’s still. Today most Bourbons are made in Kentucky, although as of this writing there is no working distillery in Bourbon County. The other historical event that sets Bourbon apart from other spirits is the discovery of the sour-mash yeast process. In the 1820s Dr. James C. Crow went to work at a Kentucky distillery, determined to use science to make the often rough-tasting spirit better. He found that, along with the fresh yeast, a portion of the leftovers (the “soured” mash) from a previous distilling could be added to the mash. This encourages yeast growth, inhibits bacterial contamination, and provides a certain continuity of flavor. There’s nothing “sour” about the taste, either. A hundred years later, Bourbon had fallen out of favor with the public. Scotch became the drink of choice, and white goods (gin and vodka) also cut into its market share in the 1970s and 1980s. Today, however, smart bartenders are reintroducing Bourbon as the versatile spirit it can be, both in “retro” cocktails and higher-end small-batch and single-barrel Bourbons. In Bourbon terminology single-barrel means just that: The bottle comes from one particular barrel. Small-batch means that the Bourbon is blended from a number of barrels that show the finest characteristics. Variables in the Bourbon-making process are the water, the grain (based on ripeness and moisture content), the yeast (a special, secret mix known only to the distiller), the type of barrel and amount of charring, the time of year it is put into

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TASTING AND APPRECIATING BROWN GOODS Most consumers are surprised to learn that almost anyone can cultivate a taste for whiskey/ whisky and Bourbon. Like wines, these spirits have a broad spectrum of aromas, textures, flavors, and complexities. By learning to synchronize your senses, you can increase your spirits appreciation considerably. Begin by pouring 1½ ounces of the liquor into a 6- to 8-ounce Old-Fashioned glass or a snifter; then examine it as follows: 䡲

Sight: For Scotch whisky, the appearance of the liquid is perhaps the least important attribute, indicating neither quality nor age. It may be pale yellow, gold, amber, or chestnut brown. The pivotal element here is clarity. The liquid should be clean, almost glistening, and appealing to the eye. Smell: Your sense of smell accounts for at least 90 percent of your sense of taste. The best way to smell whiskey is to aerate it by swirling it around in the glass, an action that, as with wine, releases aroma. Stick your nose into the bowl of the glass and, with your lips parted, inhale deeply, filling your nose with the spirit’s fragrance. Try to pinpoint what you smell by comparing it to everyday foods or odors with which you are familiar—yes,

everything, from paint, to seawater, herbs, grasses, fruits, nuts, candies, smoke, and so on. Think about whether the liquid smells sweet, bitter, salty, or acidic. Master Scotch distillers even suggest adding a few drops of mineral water to whiskey before smelling it, which further “opens” its aroma. 䡲

Taste: Take a small amount (no more than ¼ ounce) onto the tongue and allow it to rest there for 10 to 15 seconds before swallowing. What do your taste buds experience? You may identify the sensations as sweet, bitter, salty, hot, smoky, or biting, to name a few. Does the liquid gently warm the palate and throat, or is it harsh?

Touch: In this case, the correct term is mouthfeel, and it works to unite the rest of your impressions. Try to describe the liquid in terms of its “weight”—light, medium, or full-bodied. Is it syrupy or delicate? Does its texture complement the aroma and flavors you picked up? In cold-weather months some bartenders rinse the outside of the snifter briefly in hot water to warm it. The slight bit of warmth, which increases when you rest the snifter in the palm of your hand, helps release the whiskey’s aroma and flavor nuances.

barrels (summer heat adds intensity of flavor and color, while in winter the liquid “rests”), and even placement of the barrel within the storage area, called a barrel house. Barrels are stacked on racks up to nine stories high; the ones closest to the top get more heat, which speeds the aging process and intensifies their alcohol content. Barrel contents are either bottled directly or blended first, but not until at least two years have passed. Master distillers must think multidimensionally, knowing how the spirit ages in each part of the barrel house and sensing when to rotate barrels for consistent maturation of the spirits inside. As might be expected from such a competitive industry, clever marketers have taken the term small-batch and adapted it for their own sales gains, taking a few

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barrels from large-batch production and bottling them separately, then creating ad campaigns that appear to endow these technically “smaller batches” with the prestige of exclusivity. Used in this way, the term is a bit misleading. A sour-mash whiskey similar to Bourbon is Jack Daniel’s, a Tennessee product. Made in Lynchburg, a town of fewer than 400 people where liquor has not been sold since Prohibition, the distillery has been allowed, since 1995, to sell commemorative bottles on-site, but no one can buy and consume alcohol on the premises. While Tennessee whiskey meets the grain requirements of Bourbon, it has a special twist to its production: The distillate is filtered through maple charcoal before it is barreled for aging. This bit of regional tradition eliminates some harsher elements in the whiskey and adds its own touch of flavor and romance. George Dickel and Jack Daniel’s are the only two legal distilleries in the state of Tennessee. Jack Daniel’s (owned by Brown-Forman) and Jim Beam (which is part of Beam Global Spirits & Wine, owned by Chicago-based Fortune Brands) compete for supremacy in the brown-goods market, each with a loyal market share of more than 20 percent. Other familiar Bourbon brand names include Ancient Age, Early Times, Evan Williams, Old Crow, Old Forester, Old Grand Dad, Maker’s Mark, Ten High, and Wild Turkey.

Canadian Whisky Canadian whiskies are mostly blended whiskies, light in body, and delicate and mellow in flavor. Canadian brands provide “imported” status to consumers at less expensive prices than fine Scotches. Canadian law requires only that the whiskies be made from cereal grains and be aged at least three years, leaving the rest up to the distiller. The grains usually used are corn, rye, barley malt, and wheat, and each brand’s formula is a trade secret. The whiskies are distilled at 140 to 180 proof, and most are aged six years or more. Their lightness keeps them popular in the current “light-minded” market. Here’s a perplexing question: Which Canadian whiskies are actually Canadian products? In a conundrum that has also overtaken the wine world, a couple of large multi-brand corporations control much of the Canadian whisky production. PernodRicard acquired Seagram’s in 2001 and Allied Domecq in 2005, which means that Pernod-Ricard now owns Toronto’s Corby Distilleries, McGuinness, the Seagram’s brands (Seagrams and Crown Royal), and Hiram Walker (makers of Canadian Club and Hiram Walker). Brown-Forman of Louisville, Kentucky, owns Canadian Mist, as well as Old Forester and Jack Daniel’s. Taking a cue from their Bourbon-making cousins, Canadian brand lineups include a variety of super-premium aged whiskies. Canada also has one independent distillery, Glenora in Nova Scotia, which makes unblended malt whisky in the Scottish style—to the dismay of the Scots. The Scotch Whisky Association (SWA) demanded that the word “glen” be dropped from the name of Glenora’s most popular product, Glen Breton Rare. In 2007, the Canadian Trademarks Opposition Board rejected the argument, but the SWA appealed. The Federal Court of Canada ruled in the SWA’s favor in 2008, and Glenora appealed that decision. On January 22, 2009, a Federal

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Court of Appeal in Ottawa overturned the lower court’s ruling. So, at this writing, Glenora is victorious—although the SWA threatened yet another appeal.

Other Whiskey Categories A straight whiskey is a whiskey made from a mash in which one grain makes up the majority (51 percent or more) of the total grain content. It may be rye, wheat, or barley. A blended straight whiskey is a blend of two or more straight whiskeys of the same type, for example, blended straight Bourbon. A blended American whiskey is made by blending at least 20 percent straight whiskey with neutral spirits or light (lower alcohol content) whiskey. It may also contain a blending agent (no more than 2½ percent), such as sherry, peach juice, or prune juice, for added flavor or color. Often the neutral spirits are aged in used oak barrels to remove harshness. The blending process produces a whiskey that is lighter in flavor and body than the original unblended whiskeys, though not lower in proof. Blended whiskeys made in this country have the words “American Whiskey” on the label. Many of the U.S. whiskeys are blends, for example, Seagram’s 7 Crown or Schenley Reserve. There is no aging requirement for blended American whiskey, which means that the cheapest brands can be harsh—and definitely unsuitable as bar whiskeys. A rye whiskey is one that is distilled at 160 proof or less from a fermented mash of at least 51 percent rye and 49 percent corn grain, aged in charred, new oak containers at least two years. Notice that this description is almost the same as for Bourbon except for the percentages of grain. The difference in mash content results in rye whiskey’s characteristic spicy or peppery overtone. In the early days of American whiskey-making, rye was the grain of choice. As America expanded westward corn and other grains took the place of rye. Today few people drink straight rye whiskey, although many classic cocktail recipes called for straight rye. Mount Vernon, Old Overholt, and Sazerac 18-Year-Old are among the best-known brands of straight rye. A confusing but necessary note: Along parts of the East Coast blended whiskeys are referred to as “rye,” but this is a nickname; these are not ryes. Straight rye is a full-bodied spirit with the strong flavor of its parent grain, whereas most blended rye whiskeys are lighter and less defined. Corn whiskey is a cousin to Bourbon; the difference is that corn whiskey (also called corn liquor) has a higher corn content, a minimum of 81 percent in the mash. It is aged in uncharred barrels and has a relatively high alcohol content (80 percent by volume). One U.S.-based distillery, Heaven Hill in Bardstown, Kentucky, makes corn liquor today under several brand names, including Dixie Dew, Georgia Moon, and Mellow Corn. “Made-in-USA” light whiskey came into being in order to let American distillers compete with the lighter Canadian imports, which are distilled at higher proofs than those allowed in the United States. In 1972 the federal government created a new category for whiskeys distilled at above 160 proof but below 190 proof. These whiskeys may be stored in used or uncharred new oak. Aging in seasoned (used) wood permits good development of the lighter flavor, without the intensity of the high-proof spirits. There are several light whiskeys on the market, but none has caught on with the drinking public. Today they are generally used in blending.

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Kentucky and Tennessee do not have exclusive rights to the brown-goods business. California boasts some thriving distilleries, including Peregrine Rock in Southern California and Anchor’s Old Potrero in the San Francisco area. McCarthy’s Oregon Single-Malt is getting good reviews, too. In almost every country, you will find someone making and selling whiskey, or at least what he or she calls whiskey. France has more distilleries than Ireland; its products are often labeled “Whisky de Breton” (or Bretagne) for the northwestern region where they are located. India (Ponda, McDowell’s, Sikkim), Australia (Lark), and Germany (Blue Maus) are among the countries with whiskey products that occasionally make their way to the United States. Respectable brands from other countries include DYC from Spain, Yamakazi and Yoichi from Japan (which have been in business since the 1920s and 1940s, respectively), and Tesetice from the Czech Republic. The latter’s colorful names for its exported products are Gold Cock and King Barleycorn.

Serving Whiskey Whiskey drinks are served before, after, or between meals, but they are usually not offered with the meal. They may be ordered by type (“Give me a Scotch . . .”) or by brand name (“May I have a Dewars and water?”), and sometimes in cocktails. Common ways that you will serve them are: 䡲

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Neat: Undiluted, at room temperature. Serve it in a shot glass or other small glass, with a separate glass of ice water beside it. Straight: Same as neat. Also called up or straight up. On the rocks: Poured over ice in a 5- to 7-ounce rocks glass. Use fresh ice, preferably made from distilled or filtered water. With a splash: Mixed with water, preferably bottled spring water. With soda: Mixed with club soda, or high-quality sparkling spring water. People who know their liquor will often want it mixed with water or soda, not “straight.” They know that subtler flavors may come to their attention more readily when the alcohol is somewhat diluted. When served with soda or another mixer, a whiskey drink is served in a highball glass. Fill it first with ice, then pour in the whiskey, and fill with the mixer. Swirl it with a barspoon before serving. (The “Branch” in a Bourbon and Branch, by the way, refers to clear spring water: old-timers felt Bourbon was too good to mix with ordinary tap water.)

WHITE GOODS: VODKA, GIN, RUM, AND TEQUILA Vodka, gin, rum, and tequila are known as white goods because they are similar in color, or more accurately lack of color, and are lighter in body and taste than the brown goods, such as whiskey and brandy. The key to the enduring popularity of white goods rests on an interesting public misconception: They are “lighter” in

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alcohol than brown goods. When it comes to alcohol content, white goods pack just as powerful a punch as whiskeys or other spirits, at 80 proof or higher. However, many of today’s consumers, intent on a moderate alcohol intake, often assume that spirits lighter in color and flavor are not as “strong” as the darker, richer-tasting ones. This misconception has done wonders for the sales of white goods. The major trend in white-goods marketing in the 2000s has been the emergence of dozens of new products, a practice known as creating line extensions, in order to gain attention and innovate in what have long been rather conventional product categories. In the discussions of individual spirits that follow, you will notice the trend toward flavored and infused spirits. But numerous liquor hybrids on the market almost defy classification. These products include Hpnotiq, a French import that mixes vodka, Cognac, and fruit juices; and Bacardi’s Ciclon, a blend of rum, tequila, and lime. Perhaps you will appreciate these hybrids more after you learn about the origins of their base spirits.

Vodka Vodka is the top seller of all distilled spirits, accounting for more than one-fourth of the liquor sold in the United States. Its exact origin is questionable. While most purists argue over whether it was created in Poland or Russia, writings from the early eleventh century suggest that this spirit first appeared in Persia, now Iran, and was transported through Turkey and Spain to Poland. The word vodka is derived from the Russian phrase zhizenniz voda, which means “water of life.” It later evolved to wodka, an endearment that roughly means “dear little water.” The earliest vodkas were made from grain or sometimes potatoes, distilled at fairly high proof but not aged, and so strongly flavored that they were often spiced to mask the raw grain taste. In the early 1800s, it was discovered that charcoal absorbed the congeners, and modern-day vodka was born. It is clear, odorless, and, oddly enough, flavorless. Drunk neat, chilled, usually with spicy foods—caviar, smoked salmon, anchovies, at least by the upper classes—it became the rage in Russia. Peasants drank it, too. Everyone did. In 1914, the Smirnov family was producing a million bottles a day and exporting vodka to Europe, parts of Asia, and the United States. Three years later everyone in the family of more than 100 members was wiped out by the Russian Revolution, except one: Vladimir Smirnov, who escaped to France with the family formula. He tried to reestablish the business in other European cities but did not have sufficient funds. Eventually he sold the rights to the vodka business to another man, who brought the formula to the United States, began distilling in 1934 as “Pierre Smirnoff & Fils,” then sold the license to the Heublein corporation in 1937. Years later a legal battle was being waged between descendants of the Smirnov family and Heublein, which sold the brand name Smirnoff Vodka (half a million bottles a day in 150 countries), over the rights to the family name and product portfolio. As of this writing, the Smirnoff brand is owned by London-based beverage giant Diageo and is still by far the bestselling U.S.-made brand, with a market share of 40 percent and a brand lineup that now includes seven flavored vodkas.

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The true ownership of another famous Russian vodka brand has also been the focus of a heated court battle. When Pernod-Ricard purchased Allied Domecq and became the owner of international distribution rights for Stolichnaya vodka, it also inherited Allied Domecq’s legal troubles as a codefendant in a case brought by two Russian companies. The Russian-government-owned import-export agency and a private vodka distillery claimed that they were the rightful owners of the Stolichnaya brand. The case alleged that, in the early 1990s, wily business managers had sold the trademarked name illegally (to a company known as S.P.I.) when the Soviet Union was busy dismantling and privatizing state-owned businesses. After a lengthy court battle, a New York judge decided that S.P.I. could keep the rights to use the Stolichnaya name in the United States—although, perhaps ironically, S.P.I. does not have that right in Russia. The Russian government further claims that Stolichnaya cannot be labeled as “genuine Russian vodka” when it is not exported from Russia but from Latvia. (S.P.I. says it is made in Russia but shipped to Latvia to be bottled.) In a related move, another vodka distiller (Russian Standard) has introduced its own product (Imperia) in the United States, claiming it is the only “authentically Russian” vodka being sold in America. It’s a lot of courtroom drama for a product that actually got a very slow start in the United States. In 1946, however, the owner of the Cock ’N’ Bull restaurant in Hollywood put together a drink made from vodka, which was not selling, and ginger beer, which wasn’t selling either, added half a lime, served it in a copper mug, and christened it the “Moscow Mule.” With skillful promotion the drink and the spirit caught on. Vodka’s popularity was elevated as a perfect partner for all sorts of juices and mixers, since it has almost no flavor of its own but adds a definite alcohol kick. Soon came the Screwdriver, the Bloody Mary and a host of others, including the vodka martini, which is every bit as popular as its gin-based counterpart. In 1976, vodka sales surpassed those of whiskey sales. Vodka is defined in the U.S. Standards of Identity as “neutral spirits so distilled, or so treated after distillation with charcoal or other materials, as to be without distinctive character, aroma, taste, or color.” Vodka can be distilled from any fermented materials because neutral spirits from any source taste pretty much alike, which is to say, they do not have a taste. Experts say the differences between vodkas are largely based on the water used to make them. Any agricultural product that contains fermentable carbohydrates may be used in the vodka-making process. American vodkas are made from grain, although Idaho distillers, including Teton Glacier, use that state’s bumper crop of potatoes; Oregon has Spudka brand potato vodka. Scandinavian vodkas are usually made from wheat mash, giving them a lightly sweet flavor. The Dutch use winter wheat, high in glucose, which adds complexity. Poland’s Belvedere brand and American-made Shaker’s Rye are distilled from rye. No matter what the base ingredient, the final product is 70 to 100 proof, a smooth, adaptable form of alcohol that can be used in a variety of mixed drinks. In the United States, the Standard of Identity for flavored vodka requires that the name of the predominant flavor appear as part of the designation. Many vodka producers buy neutral spirits from distillers who specialize in making them, then continue processing them to selectively remove impurities, congeners, and undesirable flavors, while improving clarity and smoothness. There are several ways to do this, including:

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Filter the spirits through charcoal, bark, sand, seashells, and even diamond dust! (Filtration methods are the trade secrets of the vodka producers. Fashion designer Roberto Cavalli, for instance, puts his name on a trendy vodka product filtered through layers of crushed Italian marble.) Inject oxygen bubbles into the spirit to catch impurities. Use extractive distillation, boiling the spirit and “bathing” it in water. Impurities attach to the water molecules and are extracted. Spin the liquid in high-speed centrifugal purifiers that separate the congeners from the spirit.

Vodka is not aged. Many people assume that all vodkas are alike simply because they are neutral, but this is not the case. Quality, or lack of it, is definitely perceptible, and vodka is emerging as a much more complex and sophisticated product. Some vodkas are triple- and quadruple-distilled, and the people who choose one over the other swear that there are subtle differences. It is, perhaps, ironic that the most successful ongoing trend in the production of this flavorless spirit has been to flavor it. Flavored vodkas might originally have been produced to mask the intensity of the unflavored spirit, but some are made to showcase the distiller’s skill. Vodka production guidelines allow for up to 2½ percent sugar in the formula to help carry the flavoring agent; that is quite a challenge to distillers, and citrus flavors provide the biggest “blast” of taste within this limit. Today’s bartender has a variety of good reasons for using a flavored product, including complexity, mixability, and convenience. Swedish-made Absolut has several vodka flavors, including Absolut Peppar, a peppery vodka for spicy Bloody Marys and Cajun Martinis, and Absolut Citron, a lemon-flavored vodka with mandarin orange and grapefruit accents. Stolichnaya from Russia has countered with vanilla-, strawberry-, peach-, cinnamon-, and coffee-flavored vodkas; American-made Skyy now boasts half a dozen flavors, including a raspberry “Cosmo Mix” for making Cosmopolitans. A Canadianmade vodka from independent distiller Kittling Ridge of Ontario called Inferno Pepper-Pot has been infused with hot peppers nicknamed “9-1-1 chiles,” or Flamingo Reds, that are left in the bottle (Figure 5.7). A hot trend, indeed! Like all popularity contests, however, the flavored-vodka showdown has had its critics, and bartenders are chief among them. They claim that the profusion of products takes up too much backbar room, and takes some of the flair out of bartending. When mixing a drink becomes as simple as pouring an already flavored spirit into a glass, the element of fun disappears. Other mixologists feel that vodka’s beauty is its simplicity as a colorless, odorless, and flavorless liquid that makes a wonderful base upon which to build and experiment. In recent years, Americans have fallen in love with imported FIGURE 5.7 Inferno Pepper Pot Vodka, vodka. This trend is the result of a couple of factors: the persistent a Canadian vodka infused with hot misperceptions about it as a “light” spirit, and the association of an peppers. Photo courtesy of Bochsler Studios.

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imported label with financial success and social status. Although Smirnoff remains the market-share leader, there are plenty of upscale fans of Grey Goose (owned by Bacardi, which is headquartered in the Bahamas, but produced in France), Ketel One and Belvedere (both from Poland), and Svedka (from Sweden). Sweden’s Absolut line does well at premium prices, as does Finlandia, Finland’s entry into the upscale import market. In many cases, you pay for the brand name and amazing advertising budgets of these formidable competitors. Keep in mind that you can find excellent values in imported vodka at less than $25 per bottle.

Aquavit The Scandinavian version of vodka is often called schnapps (not to be confused with the liqueur of the same name), but its official names are aquavit (from Norway) and akvavit (from Denmark). The word schnapps is from an ancient Norwegian word meaning “to snap up or gulp,” and, not surprisingly, the traditional way to drink this bracing spirit is ice cold, in a single gulp, sometimes followed by a swig of beer. Aquavit is stored in the freezer in Scandinavian homes, and drinking it is a special tradition at Christmas and on May 17, the anniversary of the drafting of Norway’s constitution. Aquavit is most often produced from distilling potatoes. It is distilled at 190 proof and then redistilled (like gin) with flavorings; caraway seed is the classic, but you may also find hints of cumin, fennel, dill, coriander, clove, and orange peel. It is aged in oak sherry casks and bottled at 86 to 90 proof, and makes an interesting substitute in some cocktail recipes that normally call for vodka. On the Internet you can find numerous recipes that use vodka as the base for homemade aquavit. Minnesota, with its large numbers of Scandinavian descendants, leads the United States in aquavit consumption. Exported brands sometimes seen here include Aalborg from Denmark and Loiten Export or Lyshold Linie from Norway. The term Linie (pronounced LINN-yuh) on the label means “line” and refers to the practice of shipping the aquavit, still in its oak casks, across the equator from Norway to Australia in a round-trip journey, a tradition that dates from the 1800s. The theory is that aquavit gains a richer flavor by spending several weeks at sea, gently sloshing around in the barrels. The label may even designate the ship and the date that it sailed. Germany makes a similar product, known as korn because it is made using corn, not potatoes. German korn liquor is sometimes flavored with fruit and does not share the Scandinavian tradition of journeying first to Australia by ship.

Gin Gin makers have probably looked enviously at vodka’s popularity in recent years, since their own fortunes have been down slightly. But gin was a flavored spirit long before vodkas were infused with lemons, berries, and hot peppers. Gin’s hallmark is the distinctive, predominant flavor of the juniper berry. Monks made juniper

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MAKE YOUR OWN FLAVORS: INFUSING SPIRITS Some bartenders make their own signature vodka flavors—and can charge premium prices for the exclusive concoctions. Flavoring vodka or any other type of spirit is not difficult. It requires a simple infusion, meaning that you immerse the fruit (peeled, dried, or not), herb, or vegetable in the spirit and let it marinate at room temperature in a clean container, depending on the intensity of flavor you wish to achieve: Ingredients with bold, assertive flavors may take only a day to infuse; two days for those with more subtle flavors. The possible combinations are as limitless as the list of ingredients and your liquor inventory—in restaurant/bar combinations, the chefs often invent the infusions and find uses for them in the kitchen. Recent flavor marriages we’ve noted include:

Cachaça with pitted sour cherries

Vodka with fresh horseradish, whole black peppercorns and celery seeds

Saké with fresh cantaloupe, peaches, and/or raspberries

Displaying the infusions in large, clear glass containers on the backbar will add lively color to your bar setup, and will probably also spark customers’ questions and interest. Just make sure that the containers are always clean and well sealed. Before you start making your own, however, check with your state’s liquor-control agency because in some areas these blends are regarded as “tampered” spirits, and it may be illegal to sell them.

berries (Latin name ginepro) into medicinal potions in the fourteenth century as protection against bubonic plague, and as cures for kidney and bladder ailments and indigestion. Gin as we know it was invented in the 1500s by Franciscus Sylvius, a Dutch professor of medicine who made an aqua vitae from grain flavored with juniper berries. Dr. Sylvius also had medicinal benefits in mind, but his concoction was so potable that it swept the country as a liquor, under the name Geneva or Genever (from the French genievre, which means juniper). It crossed the English Channel via British soldiers, who called it Dutch courage and shortened its name to gin. In England it was also sometimes known as Hollands. Cheap gin was soon being made in London from almost anything—“Make it in the morning and drink it at night”—and sold in hole-in-the-wall dramshops all over London. To become a distiller all you had to do was display a “Notice of Intent” in a public place for 10 days, and then start selling. William of Orange, the King of England at the time, was from Holland, which made all things Dutch suddenly fashionable. (His own gin consumption became somewhat legendary; the royal banquet hall was nicknamed The Gin Palace.) But it was not just the elite who succumbed. England’s desperately impoverished population drank gin on a national scale to the point of disaster: 20 million gallons at its peak in 1750. The pattern repeated itself in the United States during Prohibition, when so-called bathtub gin was made at home from alcohol, juniper, and glycerin. Bathtub gin, too, was a poor and sometimes lethal product, and the custom arose of mixing it with something

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else to kill the taste, thus popularizing the cocktail. It took gin some years to outlive its tacky history, but today it is a highly respected favorite. The British officer’s gin and tonic (consumed in an effort to prevent malaria) and the post-repeal adoption of the Martini as a fashionable cocktail had a lot to do with changing gin’s image. The U.S. Standard of Identity for gin spells out the many ways in which gins are made: It is “a product obtained by original distillation from mash, or by redistillation of distilled spirits, or by mixing neutral spirits, with or over juniper berries and other aromatics, or with or over extracts derived from infusions, percolations, or maceration of such materials, and includes mixtures of gin and neutral spirits. It shall derive its main characteristic flavor from juniper berries and be bottled at not less than 80 proof. Gin produced exclusively by original distillation or by redistillation may be further designated as ‘distilled.’” Confusing? The main point is that the essential characteristic of all gins is the flavor of juniper berries. The remainder of the standard simply mentions all the various ways by which a spirit with such flavor may be produced. The juniper flavor is typically enhanced by adding the undertones and flavors of other aromatics, often referred to as botanicals. These are parts of plants (leaves, roots, bark, seeds, berries, and peels) that yield aromatic oils. The list includes angelica, coriander, cardamom, cassia bark, fennel, anise seed, nutmeg, caraway, and lemon. The precise mix and method are the secret of each producer, and these account for the subtle flavor variations from one brand of gin to another. There are two types of gin: Dutch and English style. Dutch gin is obtained by “original distillation from mash,” and English-style gin is made by any of the other methods. The two types are quite different, and only the English style, whether imported from England or made in the United States, is used in mixing drinks. Dutch gin is a product of the Netherlands and is known as Hollands, Genever, or (rarely) Schiedam. It is made beginning with a mash of barley malt, corn, and rye, which is fermented to make a beer, then distilled and redistilled in pot stills at low proof, with the juniper berries and other aromatics included in the final distillation. The result is a full-bodied gin with a definite flavor of malt along with the juniper. This flavor would overpower almost anything it might be mixed with. This is not a bar gin. It is drunk straight and icy cold. Bols, in a stone crock, is probably the only brand you will find in the United States. English-style gin is made in both England and the United States. It is usually called London Dry, wherever it is made. The historical tidbit behind this name is interesting. In the past some gins were sweetened with sugar, and these were known as Old Tom gins. The unsweetened gins were labeled Dry or London Dry to distinguish them from Old Tom gins, and the names stuck. Today some are labeled Very Dry or Extra Dry, but they are no drier than the others. Plymouth gin is a lighter product (at 82.4 proof) also made in England; it has the distinction of being a favorite of Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill, both Martini drinkers. In England, gin is made from nearly neutral grain spirits distilled in column stills at 180 to 188 proof. These are reduced to 120 proof with distilled water, then redistilled in tall pot stills with juniper berries and other aromatics either in the spirits or suspended above them on mesh trays so that the rising vapors pass through and around the berries. Some gin is made by steeping the botanicals in the liquid.

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American gins are made in two ways: distilling and compounding. Distilled gins are made in much the same way as the English gins: by redistilling neutral spirits with juniper berries and other aromatics. Compound gins are made by simply mixing high-proof spirits with extracts from juniper berries and other botanicals. Like vodka makers many U.S. producers of gin buy their neutral spirits from distillers in the Midwest who specialize in these spirits. Distilled gins are allowed to use the word distilled on the label; compound gins are not identified as such on the label. Gin is also made in Spain, France, Lithuania, the Philippines, and Africa. Gin does not need to be aged, and it is usually stored in stainless-steel or glass-lined tanks until bottled. One type known as golden gin is aged briefly for color. Sloe gin, by the way, is not a gin at all; it is a liqueur made from sloe berries, which are not berries but small wild plums. Sloe gin is used at the bar to add color to drinks and, at other venues, as desserts. While there are some flavor-infused gins (lime, grapefruit, mint, green olive) and a few premade, gin-and-juice drinks, the juniper taste does not lend itself as well to the creation of line extensions as vodka does—with a few striking exceptions. One that comes to mind is Magellan, a French-made gin from the Angeac Distillery, infused with botanicals and iris petals to give it an unusual, light blue color. Another is Hendrick’s, made in Scotland, that bills itself as “the world’s most peculiar gin,” with the addition of rose petals, citrus, and cucumber along with the juniper berries. Sales of super-premium imported brands like these are the only real bright spots in a category that, as a whole, has been flat. The bestselling premium bar brands are currently British-made Bombay Sapphire and Tanqueray; other reliable names include Beefeater, Gilbey’s, Gordon’s and Seagram’s. A good bartender will know enough about gin’s colorful history to intrigue his or her customers and make some recommendations. Gin is almost never consumed straight, except in the very dry Martini. Martini making is practically an art form: Every bartender and every serious Martini drinker has preferences and opinions as strong as the gin itself. There is a definite difference between the classic, traditional gin Martini—gin, vermouth, and a twist, garnished with stuffed olives or cocktail onions—and the trendy recipes that younger consumers enjoy. Chocolate liqueur, cranberry juice, and maraschino cherries have all been Martini ingredients. Along with the venerable Martini other popular gin-based drinks are the gin and tonic, Tom Collins, and Singapore Sling. The resurgence of the classic cocktail might eventually mean a boost for gin sales—but it hasn’t happened yet.

Rum Vodka might be the bestselling spirit overall, but rum is the spirit with the fastest growing sales, especially among the under-30 crowd. The category leader in the United States is Bacardi, with a line that includes several premium and super-premium brands, six flavored rums, and a few low-calorie, flavored rums under the Bacardi Breeze label. Diageo’s Captain Morgan Rum is coming on strong in the second spot, however, with the largest sales increases of any spirit in any category in recent years. Diageo also owns Jamaican rum-maker Myers’s and a secondary label, Captain Morgan’s Parrot Bay, which comes in tropical flavors from pineapple to passion fruit.

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Rum, according to its Standard of Identity, is an alcoholic distillate from the fermented juice of sugarcane—in the form of syrup, molasses, or other sugarcane by-products—produced at less than 190 proof and bottled at not less than 80 proof. It has a long and somewhat unsavory history. It was first made in the East Indies in the seventeenth century, then spread to other areas where sugarcane was grown: China, India, and North Africa. The Spanish and Portuguese explorers transplanted sugarcane to the New World when they saw that the Caribbean and South American climates were perfect for this valuable crop. A writer reported in 1660s that “the chief fuddling” (intoxicant) made on the island of Barbados was “rum-bullion, alias ‘kill-devil,’ and this is made from sugarcanes distilled, a hot, hellish, and terrible liquor.” No matter how harsh the taste, rum was given as payment to slaves, drunk by pirates who scourged the shores of the Spanish Main and the Caribbean islands, and consumed by the British Navy, with lime juice added to prevent scurvy. (Hence the nickname limeys for the British.) Rum was also popular in seventeenth-century Europe and the eighteenth-century American colonies. Rum-making became a flourishing industry in New England at this time, which marked one of the darkest periods of rum’s history. For years rum manufacturers and New England ship captains carried on a highly profitable triangular trade with Africa and the West Indies. They exchanged New England rum for slaves in Africa, as well as slaves for molasses in the West Indies, and turned the molasses into rum for the next go-round. British taxes and restrictions on the rum trade were as much a cause of the American Revolution as were the taxes on tea. It should not come as a surprise, then, Temperance leaders in the nineteenth century made “Demon Rum” the symbol of the evils of alcohol. The image remained through Prohibition when smugglers were called rumrunners and the offshore ships were known as Rum Rows, even though they sold as much Scotch as rum. The name rum (or rhum, the spelling that still appears on French-influenced labels) may come from the name for Dutch drinking cups of the time (roemers or rummers); or it may be either a derivation of the islanders’ word brum, which means “a sugarcane drink” or a shortening of the word rumbullion, an antiquated term for a disturbance or uproar. Rum is made from molasses or sugarcane juice, fermented to create a liquid (known at this stage as wash) with water and yeast. The wash is boiled in the distillation process to 160 proof or higher. Some distillers use pot stills; others use column stills. The spirit comes out of the still as a clear liquid, which takes on both its color and much of its character from barrel aging. White (clear) rum is often not put in barrels at all, but in tanks until bottling. For aged rums casks that once held Bourbon, Cognac, wine, and whiskey are redeployed as storage (see Figure 5.8). The Caribbean climate is so hot and humid that aging happens rather quickly, and some of the liquid is lost to evaporation. A few distillers ship their barrels elsewhere, to cooler climates, for long-term storage. There are three basic types of rum, which differ somewhat in flavor according to the amount of aging. These are: 䡲

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White or Silver: Aged only a year or two. These are the lightest in color, although they have the highest alcohol content (and are sometimes referred to as overproof) and the least-refined flavors. Amber or Gold: Aged at least three years. These are sometimes colored with caramel and take on a richer hue from spending more time in barrels than other rums.

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FIGURE 5.8 A barrel house.

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Photo courtesy of Cruzan Rum Distillery, St. Croix, United States

Virgin Islands.

Amber rums have somewhat more flavor and are a bit mellower than the Whites and Silvers. Red Label or Dark: Aged six years or more. These feature a dry, mellow, full-bodied flavor and bouquet; a deep golden color; and a slightly lower alcohol content. Rum Vieux: Aged 10 years or more, these rums often are compared to fine Cognacs but with less acidity.

It is important not to judge rum strictly by its color. Some of the clear rums are the sharpest in flavor because they have not spent much, if any, time in barrels; the milder and mellower ones may be the darkest in color. Much of the rum consumed in the United States (the Ronrico brand, for example) is made in Puerto Rico, but Jamaican rum is also popular. The Jamaican style is full bodied and pungent, with a dark mahogany color that it owes mainly to caramel. Jamaican rum begins with molasses that is fermented by yeasts from the air, a process (also used in making some beers) called natural, wild, or spontaneous fermentation. It is distilled at 140 to 160 proof, producing a spirit with full flavor and body. This is aged five to seven years. It is bottled usually at 80 and 87 proof, and occasionally at 151 proof, for flavoring and flaming. Myers’s rum is the familiar Jamaican brand; its label proclaims it to be “the Planter’s Punch brand.” Cruzan rums are distilled in St. Croix, in eight flavors today. A few U.S.-made rums are making names for themselves in this competitive field, including Aristocrat and Monarch. A good place to gaze into the future of specialty drinks is at the bar of a smart new Latin or Caribbean restaurant. These cultures represent fast-rising demographic groups in the United States, and rum is as traditional to them as Scotch is to the

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Scottish and whiskey is to Americans. The soaring popularity of “retro” classic cocktails—the Mojito, the Zombie, Planter’s Punch, and the Piña Colada—among hip young consumers is one reason for rum’s sudden popularity, but the other is strictly economic. Some of the smaller rum producers have been absorbed into larger beverage companies that can afford to advertise and build brand awareness among the impressionable younger crowd. Yet another style of rum, Demerara rum, is made in Guyana along the Demerara River. Darker in color but lighter in flavor than Jamaican rum, it is bottled at 80, 86, and 151 proof. Until the Zombie cocktail was invented, the chief market for 151proof Demerara rum was among lumbermen and fishermen in far northern climates, who drink it half-and-half with hot water as a grog to warm the bloodstream. Highproof Demerara is often used to flame drinks. You may also encounter Barbados rum or medium-bodied rums from Haiti, Martinique, and Guadeloupe that are made from sugarcane juice instead of molasses. Arrack (or arak) rum is distilled in the East Indies, Middle East, North Africa, and India from rice, molasses, coconut milk, figs, dates, or even sap from palm trees, depending on the country and the raw ingredients at hand. This broad category of small-volume liquors takes its name from an Arabic word, araq, which means juice or sap. Some of the results yield rum or brandy-like spirits with quite a kick. Puerto Rico, Nicaragua, and Jamaica also make “liqueur” rums, aged up to 15 years like fine brandies. In Mexico, rum (and any other liquor made with more than 50 percent cane-based spirits) is labeled aguardiente, which is Spanish for “burning water.”

Cachaça Brazil’s national liquor is a cousin to rum called cachaça (pronounced ka-SHA-suh), which has been made for at least 400 years and only recently has risen to cult status in the United States, Europe, and Japan. In fact, in terms of volume, there’s twice as much cachaça produced as rum. June 12 is International Cachaça Day, and Germany is the largest consumer of cachaça outside Brazil. Aficionados are adamant that this spirit is distinctly different from rum. While rum is distilled from molasses, cachaça is distilled from unrefined sugarcane juice. It began as a drink concocted by the slaves who harvested sugarcane and were given the leftover juice after processing. The juice fermented to produce an alcoholic drink, but someone discovered that if it were boiled to form a concentrate, it would be even more potent. Today, cachaça is used to make the wildly popular caipirinha cocktail and the less-well-known sweet, fruity batidas cocktails, which are traditional pre-Lenten carnival libations in South America. The finer-quality cachaças are barrel-aged, and the liquor emerges with a unique, pleasant sugarcane scent. In order to label it as “aged,” Brazilian law requires that cachaça be stored in small barrels for one year. There’s also a type of the spirit known as “yellow” cachaça, a sweeter version created by adding extracts of caramel or wood rather than aging it. Brazil produces thousands of brands of cachaça. The industry employs about 400,000 people and the government has waged a fierce (but so far, not especially successful) campaign to reserve the name exclusively for Brazilian-made products,

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insisting that the spirit’s history and ties to its national culture make cachaça uniquely Brazilian. It has raised the issue with the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the United States’ Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB). Brazil has an enormous economic stake in protecting its cachaça output from would-be rivals, including Caribbean nations where sugarcane is also grown. In the United States, the problem for cachaça marketers is that the U.S. government is allied with a couple of those rivals, the U.S. territories of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. The TTB continues to classify cachaça as rum and, therefore, imports are taxed as rum, adding significantly to the cost of selling in the U.S. market. The powerhouse cachaça brand in Brazil, with about one-third of the nation’s market share, is Pirassununga 51 (“P51”), although it is labeled Cachaça 51 for export. Other brands you may see in the United States include Agua Luca, Boca Loca, Cabana Leblon, Pitu, Velho Barreiro, and Ypioca.

Tequila About three-fourths of the tequila poured in the United States goes into making the Margarita, and the more flavor variations bartenders create, the better for tequila sales. This Mexican spirit has its own unique history, identity, romance, and flavor profile, however, and it is also gaining popularity as a high-end product with America’s liquor customers, especially those in their twenties and thirties. Superpremium tequilas are commanding the same respect as single-malt Scotches and single-barrel Bourbons. Bars hold tequila tastings and dinners, pairing the spirit with multiple courses to show its adaptability to food. Tequila makers are creating a smoother and more refined product for the international palate and to use in cooking. There is no longer a need, as is the custom in Mexico, to “slam” or “shoot” (i.e., gulp) a straight shot of tequila followed by jolts of salt and lime; gourmands say that would be wasting a truly fine product, which some even compare to Cognac. Tequila is defined as an alcoholic distillate from a fermented mash derived principally (51 percent or more) from the Agave Tequilana Weber, commonly known as the blue agave plant. There are more than 200 strains of agave, a desert relative of lilies, but only the blue variety is used to make tequila, and it must be grown and harvested in one of five regions authorized by the Mexican government. The agave plant has had mystical meaning to the Mexican people for centuries. It is said to be the incarnation of Mayahuel, a goddess, and the earliest spirit made from the plant, called pulque (PUHL-kay), was used in celebrations and religious ceremonies to bless land, and crops. Its power as an intoxicant was also well known, even to the ancient Aztecs. The agave distilling industry started to spring up around the town of Tequila in the mid-1700s (until these plantings were legally permitted by the King of Spain, all the agave had been harvested wild). The first official, commercial agave farmers and distillers were the Don Jose Antonio Cuervo family, now the familiar Jose Cuervo brand name. Tequila was not routinely exported, however, until after World War II. Some production details: The heart of the agave plant is called a pina, which means pineapple, because this is what it looks like. Growing a pina large enough to be harvested takes about nine years. It weighs 50 to 200 pounds and is harvested by

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hand by workers called juiadores. The pinas are filled with a sweet sap that emerges as they are baked or steamed and crushed into juice. The juice is then fermented and distilled twice at about 110 proof, producing a strongly flavored spirit with a sharp bite. A spirit light in appearance but definitely not light in taste, it is bottled at not less than 80 proof. It is a distinctive product of Mexico: It is manufactured in Mexico in compliance with Mexican regulations. In the 1970s the Mexican government changed the rules to allow up to 49 percent of spirits other than blue agave in the mixture—that is to say, neutral spirits, or distillates of sugarcane or corn. This half-agave, half-other-sugars blend is commonly known as mixto, and it accounts for about 80 percent of Mexico’s total tequila production. While it is not the high-end tequila, it is what most Americans drink when they order tequila in a cocktail, and it is lighter and less intense than the pure, 100 percent blue agave tequilas. Large producers send their mixto, often fruit-flavored, from Mexico in tanker trucks to be bottled in the United States. At the turn of this century, tequila production suffered a major setback because of an agave shortage that resulted in fewer producers and higher prices (an astonishing 800-percent increase in 1999). However, in 2005 producers reported a glut of blue agave and complained that their harvests net only pennies per pound. Beginning in 2006, the Mexican government mandated that every newly planted plot of blue agave must be registered with a Tequila Regulatory Council, and that distillers are only allowed to buy pinas from registered plots. The smart distillers also produce small quantities of 100 percent blue-agave tequila, aging it in barrels for smoother and more complex flavors to satisfy the connoisseur. This type of tequila is known as tequila puro. So how do you know what you’re getting? Label designations, which explain the bottle contents, are as follows: Mixtos 䡲

White tequila: Colorless and unaged. On labels, it is identified with the term blanco (white) or plata (silver). Some aficionados prefer white tequila because it showcases the true agave flavor without the barrel influence. Gold tequila: Also unaged. Its golden color refers to the addition of caramel or cane sugar; it is not a designation of quality. This is the tequila type most popular in the United States. Another common term for it is joven abogado, which means “young and smooth.”

Tequila Puros 䡲

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Reposado tequila: Made in small batches and, by Mexican law, must be barrelaged from 2 to 11 months before bottling. Reposado means resting or rested. In Mexico these are the bestselling tequilas. Anejo tequila: Aged in wood for more than one year. It is the closest thing to Cognac, with an amber or golden color, but it does tend to lose flavor when it has been aged more than four years. Anejo means “aged.” Recent standouts in this category include distillers that use sherry pipes (Del Dueno) or Cognac casks (El Tesoro) to impart the character of the other spirits to their Tequila puros. After more than three years of aging, some distillers label their products muy anejos or tres anejos, not official terminology but indicative of the spirit’s additional time in barrels. Another unofficial but common term used to identify premium or limited-production tequila is reserva de casa (which means “house reserve”).

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The Jose Cuervo brand, now owned by Diageo, is the dominant tequila in U.S. sales, but Sauza and Montezuma are hot competitors. A new generation of tequillarias has sprung up in Mexico City and in other urban markets in addition to those in Mexico. Tequillarias are popular at upscale restaurants with the tequila mystique as part of their theme, in both food and drink.

Mescal There is another Mexican-made liquor that some insist is tequila’s “poor cousin,” while others argue that it is a “rare and high-end sibling.” Either way it’s called mescal or mezcal, and it is the spirit made from agave plants that are not necessarily blue agave, and/or not located in the five designated tequila regions. (Other types of plants are called maguey, spading, sotol, and tobola.) Spanish explorers of past centuries referred to the spirit as Vino de Mescal. The center of mescal production is the state of Oaxaca. The mescal-making process is also a bit different from that of tequila. The agave hearts are slow-roasted for three days in adobe or gas ovens or in deep, stone-lined pits in the ground. This imparts a smoky flavor that is different than that of tequila. Then, the cooked hearts are left to ferment naturally, from four or five days to a full month, before being crushed and distilled—once or twice—in clay or copper pot stills. The final product is about 80 proof, with a flavor that might be described as nutty and more herbaceous than tequila. Mescal is guaranteed by Mexican law to be 100-percent agave, which purists say indicates its overall fine quality. They call it “the Cognac of Mexico,” and order it very slightly chilled in a brandy snifter. A couple of companies do export their mescal products, notably the del Maguey and Hacienda Sotol distilleries, but most of it is locally made for use within Mexico’s rural communities and flavored with herbs, bark, or fruit. You will note that, quite often, a bottle of mescal contains a worm. Yes, a worm. It’s called a gusano, and lives in the agave plant. Part of the lore and legend of the drink is that the worm contains some of the mythic power of the plant, and that he or she who eats the worm acquires that power. What do you think? Scorpion Mezcal, a high-end, triple-distilled 100 percent agave spirit, has even been bottled with a whole scorpion inside.

AFTER-DINNER DRINKS This wide-ranging category will prove, if nothing else, how creative the world’s distillers have become in satisfying just about every taste and whim. Very often while the traditional brown goods and white goods are imbibed before meals to whet the appetite, the idea behind after-dinner drinks—brandies, liqueurs, cordials, digestifs— is to enjoy something smooth and satisfying that promotes good digestion of the meal. Of course some after-dinner drinks are also used in cocktails. Today’s restaurateurs generally agree that not enough has been done to develop the after-dinner

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drink market, although customers seem to enjoy the “luxury” experience of relaxing after a meal to enjoy an interesting liqueur. Obviously the profit opportunity is huge for anyone who implements a well-executed after-dinner drink program that is both classy and consistent. You will notice that not all bars or restaurants offer extensive after-dinner-drink choices. As you will soon see, there are so many to choose from that it can be confusing. Your clientele and your budget will help you decide which to have on hand, as well as your bartenders, who will also use some of the ingredients in cocktail recipes. Generally, guests are looking for certain things from their after-dinner libations: a soothing spirit that gently warms the drinker all the way from tongue to stomach; a frothy, spiked coffee drink; a celebratory glass of Champagne; or a sweet, creamy beverage that substitutes for a traditional dessert. Make sure to offer a good (but not overwhelming) range as you compile your after-dinner list, which should be presented in list form, whether as a separate list, on the regular dinner menu, or as part of a separate dessert menu, depending on the type of establishment. Staff members must be trained to suggest end-of-meal or end-of-evening nightcaps, just as they would suggest coffee or dessert.

Brandies Brandy began as an eau de vie, the French version of aqua vitae that in other countries became whiskey, vodka, and gin. In France brandy was thought of as the spirit or soul of the wine. Italian monks and Moorish scholars probably began distilling in the sixteenth century, and brandy was one of the first results of their efforts. The process was used even earlier in Spain to transform grapes and their juices into a more potent, but still sophisticated, spirit. At the time, the Netherlands ruled the seas as merchants. Dutch ship captains used the powerful, distilled wine to fortify the regular table wines on their journeys and to add to drinking water stored on board to kill parasites. They called it brandewijn, which means burned wine, and was shortened in time to brandy. Today, most brandy drinkers are over age 30. Brandy is perceived to be a healthy, classy spirit that fits an upscale lifestyle. The U.S. Standards of Identity define brandy as the distilled product of any fruit, but what we call brandy must be made from grapes. Other fruit brandies must carry the name of the fruit. All brandies must be bottled at 80 proof or higher. Most bars use two types: a good domestic brandy in the well for mixed drinks, and premium brands, usually imported, for after-dinner service. Brandy-based cocktails include the Stinger, the Sidecar, the Brandy Alexander, and the Brandy Manhattan.

American Brandies. Most brandy consumed in the United States is made in California. It is made in column stills at up to 170 proof and is aged in white-oak barrels at least two years, but usually longer. Most of these brandies are blends—smooth and fruity, with a touch of sweetness—that may contain up to 2½ percent of added flavoring. There are also straight brandies that contain caramel coloring and no other additives, some premium brands that qualify as after-dinner brandies, and lower-end products

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that actually are blends of brandy and 20-percent (or more) neutral spirit alcohol. Quality differences account for the incredible price differences—from $7 or $8 for a bargain blend, to $35 for a mid-priced brandy, to $350 for Germain Robin’s top-shelf Anno Domini brand. Christian Brothers and E & J Gallo have been competing for years as the two top brandy producers in the United States. Recently, these companies have faced stiff competition from French imports, in bottles that make them look more expensive than they are. Some U.S.-based producers, including Germain Robin, St. George, and RMS, make their brandies the European way, the same as Cognac, by crushing the grapes at the peak of ripeness, not adding sugar during fermentation, and distilling in pot stills. Brandy is most popular in three markets—African Americans, people over age 50, and in the so-called “Brandy Belt” of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Northern Michigan, where German and Scandinvian immigrants from past generations settled and remained loyal to this spirit that was popular in their native countries. Marketers are attempting to widen the audience for brandy with upscale releases, flavored products (for example, Korbel Extra Smooth contains orange, vanilla, and nutmeg) and brandy-based cocktails, such as the Brandy Martini (brandy, Amaretto, and a splash of cherry juice) and Brandy Sunburst (brandy, Triple Sec, sweet and sour mix, grenadine, orange juice, and a splash of 7UP). American brandies from other fruits, such as apple, apricot, blackberry, and pineapple, must always include the name of the fruit on the label. These brandies may or may not be aged. Apple brandy, also called applejack, was one of the earliest and best-loved spirits of early New Englanders. Applejack may be distilled from hard cider (fermented apple juice) or from apple pomace, the leftover skins and pulp after cider has been pressed from them. Its character can best be described as whiskey-like, but with a slightly fruity aroma. In colonial times, applejack was often served mixed half-and-half with boiling water and a spoonful of mustard, in a concoction known as “scotchem.” Today federal law requires that, in order to be called applejack, the spirit be aged fours years in used Bourbon barrels. It is bottled at 100 proof as a straight brandy or blended with neutral spirits and bottled at 80 proof. There is only one applejack distiller, Laird’s, which has been operating since Scottish brandy maker William Laird settled in New Jersey in the late 1600s; his applejack was a favorite of President George Washington. (Today, the apples come from Virginia; Laird & Company owns a distillery there that produces the Captain Apple Jack brand.) Elsewhere, numerous orchard owners make and sell their own apple brandy.

Cognac. Of all the brandies in the world, Cognac is the most famous and prestigious. It has been called the king of brandies, and also the brandy of kings, and has a somewhat stuffy reputation. In recent years an oversupply in French warehouses has driven prices down, and the government has even paid vintners to remove some of their grape acreage from Cognac production. Still, some people think that there is no better way to end an evening than with a glass of fine Cognac (today a good cigar to accompany it is optional). Like Champagne, you can call it Cognac only if it is made in the Cognac area of France, made up of six specific areas where chalky soil, a humid climate, and special distillation techniques produce brandy under strict government control.

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Only certain kinds of white grapes may be used (primarily a variety called Ugni Blanc, although Colombard and Folle Blanche are also used), and specific distillation procedures must be followed, including two distillations in traditional copper pot stills (alambics) and precise control of temperatures and quantities. The farmers sell their freshly distilled spirits to shipper-producers, who age and blend them to meet the standards of their particular brands. Cognac is aged in special oak casks at least 1½ years. Most are aged 2 to 4 years, and some even longer. Caramel may be added for uniform color. During aging the alcohol evaporates through the porous casks at an average of 2 percent per year. In the warehouses the escaping vapors—known as “the angels’ share”—are noticeable. A Cognac label may carry cryptic letters, special words, and varying numbers of stars. The stars may mean somewhat different things for different brands. By French law a three-star Cognac must be at least 1½ years old; most are around 4 years old. Since Cognacs are blends of brandies of various ages, no age is allowed to appear on the label. The cryptic letters are symbols of relative age and quality, as follows: V: Very S: Superior or Special O: Old P: Pale E: Extra or Especial F: Fine X: Extra Generally a Cognac specified VS (very superior) is similar to a three-star Cognac. A VSOP (very superior old pale) has been aged in wood at least 4½ years, and probably 7 to 10. An XO (extra old) means the youngest spirit in the blend has been aged more than 6 years, although the average age for this type of high-end Cognac may be 20 years. The designations Extra, Vieille Reserve, and Napoleon may not appear on the label unless the Cognac is at least 5½ years old. (Contrary to legend, there is no Cognac around dating from Napoleon’s day, though some shippers have stocks of 50 years old and more to use in blending their finest Cognacs.) The top-of-the-line designation is the term Luxury, as in “Luxury XO.” For all the work put into the labeling system, it is a voluntary set of guidelines, not enforced by law. Cognac shippers can put whatever designations they want on their labels. A Cognac labeled Grande Champagne or Fine Champagne has nothing to do with the bubbly beverage. The French word champagne means field, and the French bubbly and the Champagne Cognac both take the name from the common word. Grande Champagne is one of seven Cognac appellations and generally, the more Grande Champagne grape content, the better the Cognac. The appellations are as follows: 䡲

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Grande Champagne: The heart of the Cognac district, its grapes are considered best of all. Grande Champagne on the label means that the Cognac was made from these grapes, and about 18 percent of Cognac production fits this description. Petite Champagne: The “next-best” grapes, coming from the area that almost surrounds Grande Champagne. Petite Champagnes account for about 20 percent of Cognac production.

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Borderies: This area also borders Grande Champagne and is the smallest Cognac appellation. Its output is highly valued for use in blending. Fin Bois: The largest (and largest-producing) appellation, with 40 percent of the Cognac output. Much of it is used for blending. Bons Bois: On the outskirts of the Cognac region, this area produces less desirable blending grapes. Bois Communes: Also on the outskirts, this large area produces average Cognac products. The appellation also is known as Bois Ordinaires. Fine Champagne: An appellation, but not a geographic area, this means that 50 percent or more of the product’s grapes came from Grande Champagne and the balance came from Petite Champagne.

In addition to single-district Cognacs made only from grapes in a certain appellation, there are blended Cognacs, single-distillery Cognacs, single-estate Cognacs, and a few high-end Cognacs that are both single-distillery and single-estate. The best-known brands of Cognac are Courvoisier, Hennessy, Martell, and Rémy-Martin; of these Hennessy is by far the market leader in U.S. sales. Grand Marnier is also considered a Cognac although it is a blend of Cognac and Curacao; Grand Marnier Navan, blends Cognac with black vanilla from Madagascar. Clearly, Cognac producers are creating line extensions in an effort to market their products in new ways. Rémy-Martin has had notable success with its RémyRed line, infusions of fruit juices with Cognac. The attempt, of course, is to erase Cognac’s image as an old person’s drink. Cognac can also be served with a simple lemon twist in a sugar-rimmed glass.

Armagnac. Armagnac (ARM-un-yak) is another French spirit familiar to Americans distilled from white-grape brandy and with much the same upscale appeal as Cognac. Armagnac comes from its own restricted region of Southwest France (Gascony, home of the Three Musketeers), which is divided into three districts. There are several major differences between Armagnac and Cognac: Armagnac makers are allowed to use any of a dozen grape varietals; their product is distilled only once, not twice like Cognac; and Armagnac is distilled more often in a column still than a pot still. These particular column stills, called alambic Armagnacias, are very small and made of copper; they are almost a hybrid of the column still and pot still. Armagnac is also aged in oak, and typically it is aged longer than Cognac. On the label you’ll see some of the same jargon and abbreviations, although Armagnac is permitted to have its age printed on the label. If the product is a blend, the age of the youngest component of the blend is used; the oldest blends (10 years or more) may be vintage-dated or labeled Hors d’age. Armagnac is traditionally served at the end of a meal and can be paired with fresh fruit or chocolate. However, the Armagnac National Association Bureau also suggests serving it in the following ways: 䡲 䡲 䡲

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Trou Gascon, which means ice cold, as a palate cleanser between courses. With foie gras, smoked salmon, or other meat-based hors d’oeuvres. Floc de Gascogne, half-and-half with grape juice. This can be an aperitif with melon or cheeses, or as a dessert.

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The various Armagnacs are more different from one another than the Cognacs are, and typically less expensive. Most Armagnac producers make such small quantities that no one has a corner on the American market, but among the brands you may see are Domaine de Papolle, de Caussade, Janneau, Chateau Laubade, Chateau du Tariquet, Napoleon, and Vielle Reserve.

Brandies around the World. When you start looking, you will be surprised at how many countries have brandy-making industries. The next few paragraphs can offer only brief introductions to a few of them. In the United States, brandy production dates back to the Spanish missions of 1800s California, although in the 1920s a combination of phylloxera and Prohibition proved almost lethal for the booming industry. Today’s market is fairly well cornered by the major producers (Christian Brothers, E & J Gallo, and Paul Masson) that use such table-grape varieties as Flame Tokay and Thompson Seedless to make their wares. A small number of specialty distillers have sprung up, however, using pot stills and solera systems (see the following section on Spanish brandy) for production of finer-quality brandies. The earliest brandies of Spain were not taken seriously or consumed on their own, however; they were made to fortify sherry, for which the country is famous. It was the Dutch traders who recognized the true worth of the Spanish brandy and prompted its export in the 1700s. Today, Spanish brandies have reputations as some of the world’s finest. They come from two areas. In Jerez, the Southwestern town where the majority of brandy makers are congregated, distilling has been going on since 900 A.D. The vineyards around Jerez are used for making sherry. For brandy the grapes are trucked in from the La Mancha region, a hot climate that produces grapes higher in alcohol and lower in acidity than those grown in France. After distillation in column stills, the new brandy goes into sherry butts (wooden casks) and is stored in solera systems, just like sherry—that is, the casks are stacked several barrels high, but each horizontal row contains brandy of about the same age. When some is taken out of a barrel (and no barrel is ever completely emptied) it is refilled with some from the next oldest row. This constant refilling and decanting is a way of gradually blending the new with the old, for smooth, consistent flavors. Depending on the length of aging (a minimum of 6 months), the brandy may be labeled Reserva (aged 1 year) or Gran Reserva (aged a minimum of 3 years), although many are aged for more than a decade. The other Spanish brandy-making region is Penedes, which is not far from Barcelona in northeastern Spain; however, there are only two producers in this area, Mascaro and Torres. Pot stills are used here, and the soleras are made from French oak instead of sherry butts, creating a hearty spirit with a different, drier character than Brandy de Jerez. Today in Spain brandy is considered somewhat an “old folks’ drink,” but the industry is doing some marketing to bring young customers into the fold. Cardenal Mendoza and Domecq are some recognizable brand names in the United States. German brandies are called weinbrand (VINE-brond), produced in pot stills, and aged for a minimum of 6 months in oak. Those aged a year or more are designated as uralt or alter, which means older. These brandies are usually made of imported

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grapes from France, and the German style is somewhat lighter and sweeter than traditional Cognac. Mexico does not come to mind as a wine-producing country, and perhaps that is because most of the wine produced there is distilled to make brandy, which now outsells both rum and tequila in that country. Mexican brandies are made in both column and pot stills and aged in solera systems. Pedro Domecq and Presidente are among the Mexican brand names exported to the United States. Pisco (PEES-koh) is a strong brandy that originated in Peru (Pisco is the name of a local tribe that created the drink from sweet, wild Muscat or Quebranta grapes) but is now a major product of Chile and Bolivia as well. If made in Bolivia, it may be called Singani. Pisco was popular in California during the Gold Rush and is still the base for a refreshing summer cocktail called the Pisco Sour, although Pisco is not easy to find in the United States. Metaxa is the well-known after-dinner spirit from Greece. Made in pot stills, slightly sweetened, and infused with herbs and spices, it is technically a liqueur but is generally thought of and marketed as brandy. South Africa has a well-established brandy industry that dates back to the arrival of Dutch colonists in the 1700s. South African brandies must be aged 3 years in oak, by law. About 25 percent of the production is premium spirits; the rest is often used to mix with cola, a drink that is popular there. KWV and Backsberg are brands sometimes seen in America, but there are at least 50 made in South Africa. The South African Brandy Foundation was formed in 1984, and a “Brandy Route” enables tourists to visit multiple distillers and sample the products.

Pomace Brandies and Grappa. There is one more spirit that, although it is not a brandy, is made in much the same way—in this case, by distilling the leftover skins, stems, and seeds from winemaking. These leftover grape pressings are known in Italy as vinaccia, in France as marc, and elsewhere as pomace. Although sometimes called a pomace brandy, the spirit is more often labeled Grappa (GRAWP-ah). This has been a source of contention since 1989 when the European Union (EU) granted Italy the exclusive rights to use the word Grappa as an official designation. (The name comes from the area of Italy where the spirit originated, near Mount Grappa.) Technically, the EU edict means that if this particular spirit is made anywhere other than Italy, it should be called pomace brandy. (Alternately, France labels its products Marc.) In the 1990s, South Africa and the EU had quite a legal squabble over this issue. No matter what the label on the bottle says, when you taste this product, you will know instantly why people either love it or hate it. Grappa used to be inexpensive, made as a way to be thrifty rather than throw anything away. It had an awful reputation and an even worse taste. Today, however, grappa producers have learned how to create smooth-sipping products that are more brandy-like—and connoisseurs are paying $15 to $30 per shot to try them! As many as 1,000 Italian vintners make their own brands of grappa, and a few American and Canadian wineries have jumped on the bandwagon, too. The top destinations for the imported Italian products are Germany, France, and the United States. The quality of the spirit is determined in large measure by how fresh the batch of pomace is at the time of distillation. Premium grappa makers have recognized

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this importance, and they are also experimenting with using whole grapes (not the leftover crushed ones), using single varietals instead of blends, and aging them in wood. The grappas made from sweeter grape varietals seem to be the most flavorful, but grappa comes in a wide variety of styles, and many are sold in different types of collectable, hand-blown bottles—another marketing tool. Grappa is best consumed cool, not ice cold, in shot glasses. In Italy, it is also used to make Caffe Corretto, a bracing after-meal drink that is one part grappa, two parts espresso. Italian brands you may see in the United States include Nonino, Bertagnoli, Maschio, and Jacopo; Bonny Doon, from California; and Clear Creek, from Oregon.

Imported Fruit Brandies. Fruit brandy is the general term for the category of bran-

FIGURE 5.9 A bottle of Poire William. Photo courtesy of Clear Creek Distillery.

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dies made from fruits other than grapes. To further confuse the novice, there are also fruit-flavored brandies, which are grape-based brandies with fruit extracts added. Fruit-flavored brandies are not true brandies but sweetened liqueurs of lower proof with a brandy base. In Europe the word flavored is omitted from these spirits, so do not be fooled: An imported strawberry brandy is not a brandy but a strawberry-flavored liqueur of considerable sweetness. The word flavored is required on the labels of the comparable American products. A fine apple brandy known as Calvados comes from France. By law it can bear the Calvados name only if it is made in the province of Normandy, where since it was too cold to grow grapes, early settlers grew tart apples instead. Calvados begins as cider (the juice pressed out of apples) and is distilled and aged in wooden barrels. The juices of several different apple types and ages are blended to make the final mix, which is 40 to 45 percent alcohol. All varieties of Calvados are aged at least two years in oak, but many are aged 5 to 10 years. The Cognac label designations, traditional but not required by law, are also found on Calvados labels. The best known appellation for Calvados is Pays d’Auge. Numerous distillers make apricot brandies as well. Cherry brandy is also popular. This is called kir (made in the Alsace area of France), kirsch, or kirschwasser (made in the Bavarian region of Germany). It is a colorless liquid made from the wild black cherry that grows in these areas. Often called a white brandy, it is made in pot stills from a mash that includes the cherry pits and skins. A low distillation proof of 100 or less allows the bitter almond flavor of the pits to be carried into the final spirit. It is bottled immediately to retain the maximum flavor and aroma of the fruit. Although production is relatively simple, the cost is high because of the large amounts of wild fruit needed. A liqueur of the same name is also made; it is sweetened and includes the word liqueur on the label. France and Germany also produce raspberry brandies, called Framboise and Himbeergeist, respectively. Another fruit brandy familiar to many is Slivovitz, a plum brandy made in central Europe. It is distilled in the same way as kirsch but is aged in wood to a golden color. Other popular brand names in the world of plum brandy are Mirabelle (made from a type of yellow plum) and Questch (made from a large, mauve-colored plum variety). A colorless, unaged brandy called Poire William is made from pears in Switzerland and France; elsewhere, pear-flavored liqueurs (made from neutral spirits and crushed pears) carry the similar name Pear William although they are not the same product. In both cases you may see a preserved pear inside the bottle (see Figure 5.9).

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SERVING BRANDY When it is not an ingredient in a cocktail, dessert drink (Brandy Alexander, Stinger, American Beauty) or coffee drink, brandy served straight as an after-dinner drink is presented according to custom in a large, rounded brandy glass called a snifter (see Figure 5.10). The glass is cupped in the palm of the hand, which warms the liquid slightly, and swirled slightly to release the brandy’s rich aroma, an important part of the sensual pleasure of the drink. However, like any tradition, not everyone agrees with it. The tulip-shaped, footed glass or the two-ounce “pony” or liqueur glasses also are acceptable. White brandies ordered straight

should be served icy cold in a pony or liqueur glass. Fruit-flavored brandies should be served either cold or over ice in a chilled glass.

FIGURE 5.10 Traditionally brandy is served in a footed, wide-based glass called a snifter.

LIQUEURS, CORDIALS, AND MORE Liqueur and cordial are two terms for the same thing: a distilled spirit flavored or redistilled with fruits, flowers, plants, their juices or extracts, or other natural flavoring materials, and sweetened with 2½ percent or more of sugar. To simplify matters we will use the word liqueur. In addition to mixing into a wide and wild variety of cocktails, liquers have two main functions: to begin and end a meal.

Great Beginnings An aperitif is served before dinner to whet the appetite. The name has its roots in the Latin word apeio, which means “to open.” In Europe, where aperitifs are popular, they usually are wine-based drinks served at room temperature. The list includes crisp, dry wines, such as Champagne, manzanilla, and fino sherries, Muscat and Alligote; or aromatized wines, fortified and steeped with herbs, such as Byrrh, Campari, Dubonnet, Lillet, Pastis, Ouzo, and Vermouth. Relatively low in alcohol (from 16 percent to 24 percent by volume) and with distinctive bittersweet flavors, they promote conviviality without dulling the palate for the food to come. In the United States, the definition of aperitif has broadened to include almost any beforedinner cocktail. Getting U.S. consumers to try the more traditional aperitifs will be difficult unless your staff has tasted them and can make recommendations. Beautiful glassware and

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eye-catching drink menus will help. Alternately, bartenders can use them to prepare premium cocktails.

Satisfying Endings Liqueurs are natural after-dinner drinks, often sweet and flavorful; the category known as digestifs was created centuries ago for less-than-glamorous task of aiding digestion. Digestifs are spirits distilled from fruits, herbs, and spices, and roots. Artisan distillers in the United States are producing eaux de vie, a category of fruity, aromatic young brandies to cleanse the palate after mealtimes. In addition to liqueurs, aquavit, grappa and marc, Cognac, Armagnac, and Calvados all are considered endof-meal spirits. These products can be difficult to sell to U.S. consumers who feel, after a meal that includes wines, that another dose of alcohol is superfluous. Restaurateurs who are pressed to turn tables realize that diners who order after-dinner drinks are planning to stay a while, thus causing delays. However, a good digestif can be warming and elegant; some can be used to concoct premium coffee drinks. A bonus: these products, unlike wines, do not easily spoil, even after the bottle has been opened. The usual care should be taken to protect them from sunlight and heat.

The Making of Liqueurs The makers of liqueurs are today’s alchemists, with their secret formulas of herbs, spices, flowers, fruits, and exotic flavorings. No longer looking for the elixir of life, they deal in flavor, color, romance, and profits. New liqueurs are continually being developed, and both old and new are promoted with recipes for new drinks in the hope that something like the Moscow Mule miracle will happen again. And it does happen now and then: The oddly named Harvey Wallbanger cocktail put Galliano in every bar. Any liqueur begins as a distilled spirit; it might be brandy, whiskey, rum, neutral spirits, or others. The distinctive flavorings may be any natural substance, such as fruits, seeds, spices, herbs, flowers, bark. Many of them are complex formulas containing as many as 50 ingredients. For example, Cointreau claims to use oranges from five different countries. The flavorings may be combined with the spirit in different ways. One method is steeping (soaking) the flavoring substances in the spirit; this is called maceration. Another is pumping the spirit over and over the flavoring substances suspended above it (as in a coffee pot), called percolation. Alternately the flavoring substances may be added when the spirit is redistilled. The sugar may be any of several forms, including honey, maple syrup, and corn syrup. The sugar content is the main element that distinguishes liqueurs from all other types of spirit. It varies from 2½ percent to as much as 35 percent by weight from one liqueur to another. A liqueur with 10 percent or less sugar may be labeled Dry. Color is often added to colorless spirits, as in the cases of green Creme de Menthe and blue Curacao. Colors must be natural vegetable coloring agents or approved food dyes.

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AN ABSINTHE REVIVAL Separating rumor from fact is not easy when trying to determine whether making, selling and/or drinking absinthe is legal in the United States. In a word, it is legal to do all three— although this was not always the case. The heady, herbaceous spirit has been controversial for more than 100 years because it is made with Artemisia absinthium (also called grande wormwood), which contains a substance (alpha thujone) that can cause hallucinations and even nerve damage. Add that to an alcohol content of 50 to 75 percent, and you have one very potent libation. The absinthes that prompted concern were made and imbibed more than a century ago, when the spirit first created in Switzerland became part of the bohemian culture of France. Artists and writers depicted it as la feé verte (the green fairy) for its green color and powerfully intoxicating effects. (There is also white absinthe, called blanche.) It’s important to remember, though, that absinthe of the 1800s contained as much as 260 parts per million of thujone; today’s absinthe cannot legally be sold in the United States if it contains more than 10 parts per million. From the early 1900s to 2007, absinthe sales were banned in the United States and some other countries. Only a few years ago, the tide began to turn when true devotees in Europe and North America fought back against the longtime myths and stigmas, producing safe-but-stylish versions of the beverage from vintage recipes and touting the importance of authenticity over lowerquality impostors, macerated but not distilled and often made with artificial flavors and colors. (Impostors are sometimes jokingly referred to as “assbinth.”) Today, about 200 brands of absinthe are being produced and marketed, many by small craft distillers.

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How to tell the “assbinth” from the real thing? The Wormwood Society, based in Washington State, offers the following suggestions: 䡲

Must be made with Artemisia absinthium wormwood, not just any “artemisia.” There are over a hundred species, many of which are nicknamed wormwood. Absinthe requires absinthium.

Must have a basic flavor of anise (licoricelike), augmented with the wormwood and other botanicals.

A mildly bitter taste. Absinthe should be pleasantly bitter, but not strongly bitter.

Be between roughly 50 percent and 75 percent alcohol.

If it’s presweetened and doesn’t taste at all of anise with other discernible herbal notes, it’s not absinthe.

Another part of absinthe’s mystique is the charming ritual involved in drinking it. Here’s how it’s done: Place a slotted absinthe spoon on top of a glass containing one ounce of absinthe, and place a single sugar cube atop the spoon. (The accoutrements are shown in Figure 5.11.) Slowly drip ice water onto the sugar cube. As it hits the absinthe, the water turns the spirit milky white and helps release its herbal aroma; the addition of sugar balances the natural bitterness of the spirit. The traditional blend is three parts water to one part absinthe. In lieu of a spoon, you can use a small, shallow bowl with a hole in the bottom (called a brouilleur) that fits atop the mouth of the glass and allows just enough water to seep through. The use of an absinthe fountain is fun and showy (see figure 5.12). It’s a glass carafe on a pedestal, with a spigot to provide the ice water drip.

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FIGURE 5.11 Absinthe accoutrements.

THE BEVERAGES: SPIRITS

Photo courtesy of Jonathan Dienhart, Wormwood Society Member.

FIGURE 5.12 Absinthe Fountain.

Photo courtesy of brianhuffphotography.com for the Wormwood Society.

A liqueur can be consumed as a shooter, served in a shot glass and quickly hoisted and downed as part of a celebration, or as a cocktail ingredient: liqueurs are integral parts of the Cosmopolitan, Margarita, and Rusty Nail. A liqueur can be sipped straight (undiluted) after dinner in an elegant stemmed glass or snifter, added to coffee, or mixed with cream to play the role of dessert. An easy way to make ice cream more elegant is to pour a bit of liqueur over it just before serving. Another option is to drizzle a teaspoonful of liqueur into a flute of Champagne. It is impossible to include the names and uses of every liqueur here, but we will attempt to list and describe a few of the most common ones—some generic types, some brand names—alphabetically (see Figure 5.13). Absinthe (AB-sinth): This beverage is not technically a liqueur, as it is not bottled with added sugar, although it is commonly included in the liqueur category because of its high alcohol content and the fact that it is sipped in very small quantities and typically diluted with water. It is a distillate of a variety of herbs that include anise seed and Artemisia absinthium, the latter commonly known as wormwood and the cause of some international acclaim and alarm in the early 1900s for being highly addictive. (See “An Absinthe Revival.”) The liqueurs Pernod Anise and Pastis are perhaps the closest in flavor, without the addictive component, as is a New Orleans-made liqueur called Herbsaint.

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Chocolate-cherry Cherry Orange Brandy and fruit Ripe banana Chocolate-vanilla Black currant Mint Almond Violet, jellybean Orange peel Scotch-honey-herb Grapefruit Anise-vanilla, licorice Orange-anise Orange peel, Cognac Irish-honey-herb Bourbon Coffee

Neutral spirits Neutral spirits or brandy Neutral spirits Neutral spirits, Cognac, Armagnac Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Neutral spirits (rum or brandy) Scotch Brandy Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Cognac Irish whiskey Bourbon Neutral siprits

Chéri-Suisse Cherry liqueur or cordial Cointreau Cordial Médoc Crème de bananes Crème de cacao Crème de cassis Crème de Menthe Crème de noyaux Crème d’Yvette Curaçao Drambuie Forbidden Fruit Galliano Goldwasser Grand Marnier Irish Mist Jeremiah Weed Kahlúa

FIGURE 5.13

Almond-apricot Anise, licorice Apricot Irish-chocolate Herb-spice Herb-spice Blackberry Raspberry Spicy herb

Flavor

Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Irish whiskey Neutral spirits Neutral spirits, Cognac Neutral spirits or brandy Cognac Brandy and neutral spirits

Spirit Base

Amaretto Anisette Apricot liqueur or cordial Bailey’s Irish Cream Bénédictine B&B Blackberry liqueur or cordial Chambord Chartreuse

Liqueur

LIQUEURS

Brand Generic Brand Brand Generic Generic Generic Generic Generic Generic Generic Brand Brand Brand Generic Brand Brand Brand Brand

Generic Generic Generic Brand Brand Brand Generic Brand Brand

Brand or Generic

Amber Red, cleara Orange-amber Pale café au lait Dark gold Dark gold Red-purple Raspberry Yellow Green Red-pink Red Clear Dark amber Yellow Clear, brown Red-black Clear, green Clear, red, cream Blue-violet Clear, orange, blue Gold Red-brown Bright yellow Clear, gold-flecked Light Amber Amber Gold Brown

Color

48–56 40–60 60–70 34 86 86 60 33 80, 86 110 52, 60 30–60 80 80 50–60 50–60 30–50 60 50–60 36–40 54–80 80 60–64 80 60–86 80 80 100 53

Proof

220

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FIGURE 5.13 (Continued)

Often referred to as white.

a

Kirsch liqueur Kümmel Lochan Ora Mandarine Maraschino Midori Ouzo Peach liqueur or cordial Peppermint schnapps Pernod Peter Heering Raspberry liqueur or cordial Rock and rye Sabra Sambuca Schnapps, peach, etc. Sloe gin Southern Comfort Strawberry liqueur Strega Tia Maria Triple sec Tuaca Vandermint Vieille Cure Wild Turkey liqueur Yukon Jack

Liqueur Kirsch Neutral spirits Scotch Brandy Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Brandy Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Neutral spirits, brandy Neutral spirits Rye and neutral spirits Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Bourbon Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Rum Neutral spirits Brandy Neutral spirits Neutral spirits Bourbon Canadian whisky

Spirit Base Sweetened kirsch Caraway Scotch-honey-herb Tangerine Cherry-almond Honeydew Anise, licorice Peach Mint Licorice, anise Cherry Raspberry jam Rye-fruit Chocolate-orange Licorice Peach, other Wild plum Bourbon-peach Strawberry Herb-spice Coffee Orange peel Eggnog-cocoa Chocolate-mint Herb-vanilla Bourbon Light whisky

Flavor

LIQUEURS (continued)

Generic Generic Brand Generic Generic Brand Generic Generic Generic Brand Brand Generic Generic Brand Generic Generic Generic Brand Generic Brand Brand Generic Brand Brand Brand Brand Brand

Brand or Generic Clear Clear Gold Bright orange Clear Ice green Clear Amber Clear Yellow-green Dark red Red-purple Gold-brown Deep brown Clear Clear Red Gold Red Gold Brown Clear Yellow-brown Dark brown Green, yellow Amber Light golden

Color

90–100 70–100 70 80 60–80 46 90–98 60–80 40–100 90 49 50–60 60–70 60 40–84 40–60 42–60 80, 100 44–60 80 63 60–80 84 52 60 80 80, 100

Proof

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Amaretto (am-ah-RET-oh): Generic name for almond-flavored liqueur. Anisette (ANN-ih-set): Generic name for a very sweet liqueur made with anise seed, an ingredient that got its start in Switzerland as a medicinal herb. At least a dozen other herbs and fruit peels are added. Benedictine (ben-ah-DIK-teen): Made by Benedictine monks in France, this liqueur is among the world’s most prestigious brands, and its formula is top secret. The monastery claims the distillation process includes five separate batches of 27 botanicals. Chambord (sham-BORD): Brand name of a black-raspberry-flavored liqueur from France. Chartreuse (shar-TROOS): Like Benedictine this brightly colored herbal liqueur’s secret recipe has been handed down in a single monastery since the seventeenth century. The monks will admit only that every ingredient is natural, with no added coloring. Experts agree that the two formulas (Green, 110 proof, and Yellow, 80 proof) taste like a heavenly combination of honey, flowers, and fruit, and that Chartreuse is arguably the world’s best liqueur. Cointreau (KWON-troh): Brand name of a liqueur made of several types of citrus fruit, including bitter oranges. Cointreau is the name of the family that first produced it in the mid-1800s after visiting Curacao (see below) and discovering its orange liqueurs. Today Cointreau is made in both the United States and Spain. Creme de Cacao (KREM dah KOH-koh): Generic name for a cream-based, chocolate liqueur. It may be brown or colorless. Creme de Menthe (KREM dah MAW): Generic name for a cream-based, mintflavored liqueur that may be green or colorless. This is important in some drink recipes: a Grasshopper requires green creme de menthe, while a Stinger requires the clear type. Curacao (KYOOR-ah-sau): Generic name of a liqueur made from the peel of the bitter orange (not the same fruit as a typical orange) in Curacao, Haiti, and other Caribbean islands. Drambuie (dram-BOO-ee): Brand name of an amber-colored liqueur that begins as Scotch, with honey added for sweetness. Frangelico (fran-JELL-ih-koh): Brand name of a sweet, hazelnut-flavored herbal liqueur made in Italy. Galliano (GAL-ee-AH-noh): Brand name of a deep yellow, Italian-made, herbbased liqueur. Grand Marnier (GRAN marn-YAY): Brand name of a Cognac and Curacao blend aged in oak in the Cognac district of France. A bottle of original Grand Marnier (from an 1880s recipe) is sold every two seconds; a newer, a upscale vintage version (called Cuvee de Cent Cinquatenair) retails for $225 per bottle. Kahlua (kuh-LOO-ah): Brand name of a Mexican-made liqueur that combines coffee and vanilla with cane spirit. It is often mixed with milk or cream. Limoncello (lim-un-CHEL-loh): Also called Lemoncello, this lemon-flavored liqueur is produced in Italy by immersing fresh lemon peel in distilled alcohol and syrup. Can be used as a digestif or a mixer, or over ice cream. Noisette (nwah-SET): French brand of hazelnut-flavored liqueur. Ouzo (OO-zoh): Thick, clear Greek aperitif distilled from grapes and flavored with aniseseed, fennel, and herbs, along with mastic (the resin of evergreen

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trees). The name comes from the inscription on crates of the liqueur that were exported from Greece to France in the late 1800s—Uso di Massalia, which means “for use in Marseilles.” Pastis (poss-TEESE): Category of liqueurs made with licorice or anise seed, including Pernod (France); ouzo (Greece); ojen (Spain), and Herbsaint (New Orleans). Sabra (SAHB-rah): Liqueur from Israel made with Jaffa oranges and chocolate. Very sweet; good in coffee or over ice cream. Sambuca (sam-BOO-kuh): Generic name of a clear, plant-based liqueur with a spicy, licorice flavor, somewhat similar in flavor to ouzo. Schnapps (SHNOPS): In Europe, an herb-flavored dry spirit (see Aquavit, discussed earlier in this chapter); in the United States today, it is a sweet liqueur, fruit or mint-flavored. Some people like it because of its relatively low alcohol content, which is about 48 proof. Peach schnapps is a prime ingredient in the cocktails Woo Woo and Fuzzy Navel. Southern Comfort: Liqueur that begins with American whiskey. A secret blend of ingredients, including peach juice, gives it a light sweetness and makes it a good substitute for Bourbon. Its market share is growing at twice the rate of other cordials, and international sales comprise 40 percent of its sales. Tia Maria (TEE-ah mah-REE-ah): Brand name of a Jamaican coffee-flavored liqueur. Tia Maria is sweeter than Kahlua and often used for mixing. Triple Sec (TRIP-ul SEK): Generic name of white (no color added) Curacao. Van der Hum (VAN-dur-HUM): South African equivalent of Curacao; a brandybased liqueur with a citrus tinge from a local tangerine-type fruit called naartjies. Translated, this spirit’s name means “What’s His Name.” Figure 5.12 also lists the base, flavor, color, and bottling proof of these and other spirits. Notice how much the proof varies. Generic types are made by more than one producer and vary in flavor and proof. Remember, no category of beverage gets better customer response from servers’ suggestions than liqueurs. There is almost no end to the flavors, textures, price spreads, and preparation options available to the smart bar owner. Liqueurs are a very trendy part of the industry. New products are released every year, as are new recipes to use existing products in new concoctions. As a result, it is easy for a distiller’s pride and joy to become the “flavor of the month.” But a flavor of the decade? That’s a true challenge.

Hard Ciders Hard cider, the enduring term for fermented cider, was mentioned earlier in this chapter in the discussion of applejack. Hard cider dates back to the Roman Empire and is still a staple in many British pubs. In colonial America, hard cider was a daily mealtime beverage until the late nineteenth century, when other immigrants brought their beer-making skills to the United States. Cider was replaced by lager beer, which was easier and cheaper to produce. Small artisan-like producers have revived hard cider as a beverage option, and in 1997 the U.S. government even lowered the federal taxes on it, to about 4 cents per 750 milliliter bottle. Cider’s alcohol content is typically 4 to 8 percent by volume

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(which is the same as, or a little higher than that of beer), although some blends can contain up to 14 percent. Brands imported to the United States from France, England, and Ireland contain as little as 2½ percent alcohol content by volume. These make nice counterparts to spicy foods, because they are not too filling and offer a crisp, complex type of refreshment that appeals to the same crowd interested in microbrewed beers. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) also requires hard cider to carry nutritional content labels, a boon for health-conscious drinkers who like the combination of a fruit-based drink with a lower alcohol level. An important note: the beverage known as hard lemonade is a mixture of beer and lemonade, and not at all kin to hard cider although they compete for the same customers. Hard cider makers seem to have congregated in two areas of the United States: New England (Vermont’s Flag Hill Farm, Massachusetts’ West County Cider) and the Pacific Northwest (Oregon’s Traditional Company, and Cyderworks; Washington’s Blue Mountain and White Oak). The largest domestic cider maker is Green Mountain Beverage of Vermont, with Woodchuck, Cider Jack, and distribution rights for the imported Strongbow brand. Canadian import Wyder’s Cider has a wide product range and a respectable market share in this offbeat beverage category. There are also British and French brands of hard cider, seldom exported to America. The top British import in the category is Strongbow; French brands include vintage-dated Etienne du Pont, Lecompte, and Henri Bellot.

Bitters Well, have we finally come to the bitter end of this lengthy discussion on spirits? Not without a quick rundown on bitters. These very unique spirits are flavored with herbs, roots, bark, fruits, and so on, like liqueurs. The difference is that bitters are unsweetened, so “bitter” is the right word for them. Once used primarily as medicines or for hangover cures, bitters come in two basic varieties: bitters that provide concentrated flavor and bitters for beverages. Most contain 30 or more different herbs and spices. On the list are Angostura from Trinidad (originally a malaria medicine), various orange bitters, and the lesser-known Peychaud’s, a New Orleans product. They are used in minute amounts to flavor mixed drinks, for example, Angostura is used in the Old-Fashioned. Among the best known of the beverage bitters is Campari, a 48-proof red Italian spirit that truly has a bitter flavor. It is usually quaffed with soda or tonic or in a cocktail, such as the Negroni. Campari is a fashionable drink all over Europe and has become well known in this country, especially among sophisticated drinkers. The bitters category is also home to some of the more interesting libations for the intrepid drinker. Amer Picon, a 78-proof, quinine-laced French bitters with a brandy base, is said to have been what the French Foreign Legion in Algeria added to the water in their canteens. Amer Picon is served with ice and water or used in cocktails. From Italy, Cynar is the world’s only spirit made from artichoke leaves. Its name comes from cynarum, the Latin word for artichoke, and its reputation is as an aperitif that is good for the liver. It is brown, syrupy, and high in alcohol content; it is typically mixed with seltzer or tonic. Perhaps the biggest surprise in the bitters market is the incredible popularity of Jagermeister (YAY-gur-MICE-tur), a German product with a stately stag on its label

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and high alcohol content. “Jager” has made the list of Hottest Brands in the liquor industry during the first several years of the 2000s, mostly for its reputation as a shooter in bars frequented by entry-level drinkers. The company works hard for its rowdy, sexy reputation with rock-concert-tour sponsorships, a traveling JagerBus full of gorgeous Jagerettes and hunky JagerDudes, and a Jager Tap Machine that dispenses the spirit super-cold. Germany also exports Underberg, which is known primarily as a hangover cure and sold in small bottles wrapped in brown paper. Still another of these supposedly drinkable bitters is Fernet Branca, a 78-proof spirit, known chiefly as a hangover treatment (perhaps as a counterirritant?). Everyone agrees that its taste is terrible.

SUMMING UP This chapter began with trend information about the beverage industry that seems to practically contradict itself—spirits sales slumped during the 2008–2009 economic recession, while at the same time, there’s an important renaissance of craft distilling, much like the way that the microbrewery business captured the attention of beer lovers. What it may be proving is that there will always be a market for excellent quality and attention to detail, and the highly competitive beverage business is no exception. All the alcoholic beverages you serve begin in the same way: by fermenting a liquid product containing sugar to break down the sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is the basic process by which beers and wines are made. Distilled spirits take the procedure one step further: The fermented liquid is heated in an enclosed space to vaporize the alcohol, separating it from the remaining liquid. The vapors are drawn off in a closed container and condensed as a concentrated spirit. All distilled spirits are made in this way. The sensory characteristics (taste, aroma, color, body) of each finished product come from combinations of many factors: the original ingredients, the distillation proof, whether or not the spirit is aged (and for how long and in what type of container), whether it is blended or infused (and with what additional ingredients), whether and how flavorings are added, and the bottling proof. Spirits fall into several basic categories, by which they were grouped in this chapter. Brown goods are the venerable Scotch whiskies and Irish whiskeys, American Bourbons, and Tennessee sour mash. White goods are the (generally) colorless liquors: vodka, gin, rum, and tequila, although the latter two spirits are sometimes tinged brown by barrel-aging and/or the addition of caramel. Liqueurs are distilled spirits to which other, aromatic ingredients—herbs, nuts, fruit extracts, and so on—are added. In the past these were added for medicinal value; today they are added for consumer interest, uniqueness, and mixability. The uses of hard ciders and bitters were also discussed. This chapter told you something about the bottles in your well and on your backbar, their interesting origins and histories, and how they differ from one another. This knowledge helps you in pouring, purchasing, answering customer questions, and in preventing or dealing with intoxicated guests. In fact, this product knowledge will give you a better understanding of the information in the chapters to follow.

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POINTS TO PONDER 1. You know now that white goods outsell brown goods. In your opinion what would it take for the brown-goods producers to change this long time trend? 2. What is the difference between rum and cachaca? 3. What is a neutral spirit, and how is it used? 4. Describe how tequila is produced. How does it differ from other white spirits? 5. Why are aged whiskies and brandies considered better than younger ones, and why are they more expensive? 6. Which of the following phrases indicate superior quality in a spirit: VSOP, bottled in bond, sour mash, London Dry, aged in wood, reposado? Briefly define each phrase, and explain how it applies to quality. 7. What are the differences in the products called pastis? 8. What is the difference between a liqueur and a cordial? 9. If someone asked you for a mixed drink with very little alcohol in it, what would you suggest, and why? 10. If you were deciding on the liquor inventory for a bar and you knew that your budget wouldn’t stretch to include every possible choice, how would you approach the challenge of what to buy?

TERMS OF THE TRADE absinthe aguardiente alambic (alembic) still anejo (tequila) aperitif applejack aquavit Armagnac arrack (arak) barrel house bitters blending blue agave BMSW botanicals Bottled in Bond Bourbon brown goods cachaça cask strength Coffey still compound gin

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congener continuous (patent) still cordial corn liquor diastase digestif distillation extractive distillation fermentation fruit brandy fusel oil Genever grappa gusano hard cider hard lemonade Hollands infusion kir (kirsch) korn line extension

maceration maguey malt marc mash mastic Mescal (Mezcal) metaxa mixed drink mixto natural (wild, spontaneous) fermentation neutral spirits overproof peaty (peat-reek) percolation Plymouth gin pomace brandy pot still proof pure malt reposado (tequila)

rye Scotch shooter single malt sloe gin solera system sour mash spirit Standards of Identity steeping Tennessee whiskey Tequila Puro tequillarias Ugni Blanc vatted malt weinbrand white goods wood management

16/11/10 12:23 AM

A CONVERSATION WITH . . . SHARON GOLDMAN Director of Marketing, Luxury Division Beringer Blass Wine Estates

Sharon Goldman is the marketing director for developing brands for Foster’s Wine Estates America. Foster’s purchased her previous employer, Beringer Blass Wine Estates, where Sharon served as marketing director for its Luxury Division. Her responsibilities include strategic planning and market positioning for seven wine brands from vineyards on three continents, including such well known names as Beringer, Cellar No. 8, and Meridian. Sharon’s résumé is an impressive list of marketing and management positions, from Lawry’s Foods to Universal Studios. She took her marketing skills to the wine industry in 1990, first with Fetzer Vineyards, then as the marketing manager for Kendall-Jackson Vineyards and Winery. In 1997 she was hired by Beringer. Sharon received her bachelor’s degree at the University of California, Los Angeles, and did graduate work at the University of California, Berkeley. Q: What is the most important type of background to have to succeed in your industry, and what kinds of classes should you take to get it? A: A diverse background is probably one of the strongest things you can have, and it is actually far preferable

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to coming into this business with a single area of focus. It is important to understand that the nature of the jobs will vary depending upon the size of the winery. There is a fairly small handful of large wineries that have more specialized jobs, versus the smaller wineries, where you can expect to wear multiple hats—one day you may be doing PR, one day you may be marketing, and the next day you may be in charge of sales—and that’s all in the same position! If your goal is to be in the restaurant side of the wine business, it helps to have experience outside of it, too. Number-crunching courses can be a real asset. Art classes will help with the more artistic and creative side of the business. In marketing we design labels and packaging, brochures, and other elements that use aesthetics. Naturally, learning about the hospitality industry will be an asset. And the fact that the wine business is also an agricultural enterprise gives you another course of study. As you can see, it just helps to be well rounded! Q: What are the growth and consumption trends for wine, and how do they impact you? A: The overall size of the business has not changed significantly, but people are paying considerably more for wine now than they were 10 years ago. One issue about wine that needs to be understood is that whether you’re dealing with a coffee-shop style establishment or a high-end hotel bar, you’re still dealing with price points that exclude a lot of people who are just not willing to spend the money

on wine. They don’t see that as where they should be spending their disposable dollars. So there is a finite population that is interested in your product, and as the price goes up the group becomes even more finite. It is also a relatively sophisticated audience, even at lower price points like White Zinfandel, which actually constitutes a good portion of the wine-drinking population. Wine is also a product that is very confusing because of the huge variety of wines that are out there—not just the grapes but also the proliferation of labels. Q: How much of an impact do nature’s ‘‘curve balls,’’ like rain or hail or diseases, really have on the price of wine? A: Well, you’re already talking about a considerable investment under the best of circumstances. To develop a vineyard in Napa (presuming you could buy a raw piece of land there) you need to figure on anywhere from $30,000 to $100,000 an acre to get it ready to produce grapes, and that’s not including the purchase price of the land itself! It then takes three to five years to grow grapes that you can actually make into wine. Once you add the effects of Mother Nature, there is even more impact. A big heat wave may cause the grapes to be ready to be picked a month or so earlier than normal. It doesn’t mean the grapes have full flavor, but it will mean they have to be picked. You get one crop a year and that’s it. If Mother Nature is not nice to you or if you’re not nice to the grape, you’re in big trouble. And that, eventually, can impact the price.

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Q: How can a bar, restaurant, or store manager help educate the public to assist them in making the right wine choices—and ideally increase sales by doing so? A: It is up to the store or bar manager to educate the public, whether it’s by providing good descriptions on the shelf tag or on the menu or by ensuring that the staff is well informed and make patrons feel comfortable when they ask questions. There are three primary reasons why someone will choose a wine: (1) someone has recommended it (usually a family member or a friend), (2) the server or store clerk recommends it and explains why they like it, and (3) price—in that order. If someone you trust suggests that you try the wine and says you’re likely to enjoy it, most people follow through on that recommendation. Wine by its very nature is somewhat experimental. At the same time it is often bought for a party or as a gift, so consumers or patrons want some assurance that they’ve made a good selection. If you start developing a trust relationship with your clientele, your sales will grow. Remember that most people are too embarrassed to ask questions, so if your menu provides additional descriptive information or you have an informed staff person willing to assist, you are likely to get additional, incremental sales. Q: What are some of the elements that go into making wine selections for a bar or restaurant wine list? A: Just knowing that The Wine Spectator has rated a wine highly at a 90 or above is helpful, but it is often not sufficient to make a buying decision. Some wine buyers, bar managers, or restaurant managers say they create their wine lists because of their own palates (what they like and don’t like). You also

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hear some say they won’t put anything on the list that is readily available at retail down the street. On the other hand, if a wine is hugely popular and is widely available, it also may mean that people will look to order it, as they know it will be good. A good range of wines by the glass is an easy and relatively affordable way for people to sample. I would suggest the wine list be balanced with some ‘‘safe’’ wines, and some lesser-known wines that you think are terrific. That can make it fun for you and the customer, if you can ‘‘hand-sell’’ it. This entails you getting to know your customers or ensuring that your waitstaff is sufficiently trained to describe each bottle of wine. If you offer wine dinners or wine tastings, the actual winemaker doesn’t have to be there. You can run the dinner yourself or ask the local sales rep, who truly knows the product, to show up, and it can be a good experience that increases sales. Q: Which kinds of distribution issues do you face that might affect a bar or restaurant? A: There are certain states that make it difficult for smaller wineries to get their wines into that market. In some states you just can’t ship directly from a winery to a restaurant; the wine must go through a distributor, such as Florida, Kentucky, New York, Texas, or Connecticut. Each state creates its own rules. If you have a restaurant in Florida and you want to buy a wine that was highly rated [99 in The Wine Spectator], unless you hook up with a distributor who takes its margin off the top, the wine can’t get to you—it’s illegal. Q: How can a bar manager become more effective at dealing with distributors? A: By making lots of noise! Seriously, if you are small and there

are certain wines that you want, you may need to work a little harder at relationships with distributors. If you are small, you may not be called on by that distributor salesperson regularly and you’re just not ‘‘on the radar screen.’’ If you can’t make an impact with your buying power, you are immediately at a disadvantage and you have to do it instead by personal contact. You need to let it be known that you want the ‘‘good stuff,’’ but also let it be known that you’re not going to be a ‘‘cherry picker.’’ If you are knowledgeable and are willing to buy multiple products, they are more likely to want to assist you and supply you when the supply is tight. So you need to be somewhat of a partner with your vendors, and understand what sales mix they need to maintain. They can always sell the high-demand items. Q: Is it important to have a mentor in this industry? A: I actually think your network of connections within your peer group is more important than having a mentor, although I don’t wish to discount the importance of having a knowledgeable person who knows the ropes. But when it’s time to get a job or change jobs, it is your network that can help you. Many of the best positions are filled before the general public hears about them, and having an inside track will help you. One good technique for learning about the wineries is to request ‘‘information interviews,’’ where you make it clear that you are just trying to learn rather than hit them up for a job. Always close those interviews with a query about who to talk with next. Your contacts are very likely to assist you in getting where you want to go later on. If they have a job available or they know of one, they are likely to mention that. If you ask for a reference for someone else to talk to, they will know you’re looking for a job anyway—it’s just a softer approach.

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oday, every state in the United States contains at least one bonded commercial winery, with North Dakota being the final state to produce commercial wines beginning just a few years ago. Depending on where you are working, make an extra effort to learn what types of grapes are grown in your state and/or what types of wines are produced in your area—and be sure to taste them! As with the craft-distilled spirits mentioned in Chapter 5, it is always a nice touch to promote local and regional products in your bar. In your search, do not discount the merits of wines made from lesser-known, indigenous hybrid grapes unique to many areas. Texas, for example, produces a beautiful Rhone-style grape called Chambourcin; most states can produce a very good white hybrid, Vidal Blanc. Varietals such as Aglianico in Italy, Carmenere in Chile, and Garnacha in Spain were virtually unheard-of in the 1980s outside their immediate geographical areas. Today, an adventurous vineyard owner on some other continent is surely trying to grow them, and a blogger elsewhere in the world is either ranting or raving about the results! With wine, you may soon find you are not content with only the local knowledge you acquire—and that’s good, because there’s an entire world of reds, whites, and sparklers with which to familiarize yourself. You don’t have to be an expert, just an interested observer (and taster) of the trends who is willing to learn enough to make smart buying and pricing decisions for the bar and enthusiastic recommendations to customers. THIS CHAPTER WILL HELP YOU . . . 䡲 Classify wines according to type and recognize some of their distinguishing characteristics. 䡲 Learn about the grapes used to make wine, and the winemaking process. 䡲 Familiarize yourself with the world’s leading wine regions and the types of wine they produce. 䡲 Read and understand wine labels.

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or one-third of Americans, wine is their drink of choice—and they are imbibing more. Wine consumption in 2008, the most recent year for which figures are available, was up 1.5 percent in the United States. The fact that the increase was modest was blamed on the economic recession, but it was the 15th consecutive year of growth for the industry nonetheless. By 2007, U.S. wine consumption surpassed that of Italy; the following year, annual wine sales in America topped $25 billion for the first time ever. Consumption was also up in Canada and Australia but down throughout Europe, resulting in an overall drop in global wine consumption.

WINE IN THE UNITED STATES: A BRIEF HISTORY Making wine is as ancient as history itself; it is referred to in the Bible, in hieroglyphics, and in Greek and Roman literature. Winemaking is the process of fermenting the juices of ripe grapes. The chemical reactions in this process are as follows: Yeast converts the sugar found naturally in the fruit into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide (CO2) escapes into the air (or in certain instances, is trapped in bottles to produce sparkling wines and Champagne), leaving the juice and alcohol behind to be stored, bottled, and eventually consumed. The quality of the fruit has a great deal to do with whether or not the wine is worth drinking. When Europeans first came to the New World, they did their best to grow grapes from cuttings they brought with them. The grapevines did not flourish in the cold northeastern climate, however, so most alcoholic fruit concoctions were made from berries or apples. In 1769 a priest named Padre Junipero Serra traveled to California from Mexico, bringing with him some European grapevine cuttings. Others followed and by the mid-1800s, European grapes were flourishing in the temperate California climate. By the late 1800s, some California wines were winning medals in international winemaking competitions. Of course, Prohibition slowed things down significantly. Grape growers could only make small quantities of home-produced wines, sell table grapes, or make sacramental wines for churches. Some growers also sold grape-juice concentrate, to which enterprising folks added their own yeast and sugar to make their own wine, but most of California’s 188,000 acres of vineyards (the 1933 figure) languished from the 1930s to the 1960s. In the 1970s, wine finally became trendy again in this country, as health-conscious consumers looked for lighter drinks and California winemakers received international acclaim for some of their wares. Today, there are almost 6,000 wineries in the United States, about 4,400 of them bonded and another 1,600 “virtual” or nonbonded, meaning they may have a physical location, winemaker, brand name, and so on, but they use another, bonded facility in which to bottle their product. About two out of every three bottles of wine consumed in America are from California, but wines imported from other nations account for 25 percent of U.S. consumption. Wines from states other than California make up the remaining 8 percent.

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TYPES OF WINE No matter where a wine comes from, it is identified by a combination of these elements: its producer, its vintage, and its varietal or some description of its content. It may include a proprietary name or even a village or region, such as Rioja, Chianti or Chablis, all famous regions in Spain, Italy, and France respectively. The producer is most often a winery, but wines are also made by blending different types of grapes from many different small vineyards. This is common in Europe, and wine made this way is labeled with the name of the cooperative or exporter, not an individual winery. The vintage is the year in which the grapes were picked and the winemaking process began for that particular bottle. The varietal is the type of grape used. It is very common to blend different varietals in a single bottle, but unless the second grape type makes up a significant percentage of the wine, the bottle is usually labeled with the name of the predominant grape. There are laws (that vary in the United States and in other nations) about how to label these blends, depending on the percentages of the varietals used. (You will learn more about how to read a wine label later in this chapter.) There are three different types of table wines: red, white, and rosé . A table wine is simply a wine that is served at a dining table; this is the term used by the Federal Standard of Identity for wines that have an alcohol content of “not in excess of 15 percent by volume.” The percentage of alcohol (usually from 10 to 15 percent) must be stated by law on the wine label. Here are a few very general comments about each type of wine: 䡲

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Red wines tend to be hearty, full-bodied, and nearly always dry. Their color can range from a deep crimson to purple to reddish-orange or rust, depending on the type of grape used and the age of the wine. The term dry means the wine lacks sweetness. Dryness is one of the qualities that makes red wine a suitable accompaniment to hearty dishes like steak, game, and lasagna. Red wines are typically not refrigerated, but are served at a slightly cool temperature of 60°F to 65°F, or very lightly chilled. The old (and still oft-cited) rule was that red wines are served “at room temperature,” although standard room temperatures have inched upward over the years and are now more like 75°F, no longer optimal for showing the wine at its best. The warmer the wine, the more predominant the alcohol becomes, making it taste “hotter” or harsher and not as pleasant as with a light chill. White wines range in color from pale straw, to bright yellow, to gold. They are generally more delicate in flavor than reds, and they range in flavor from very dry to very sweet. Many people begin a meal with appetizers, soup or salad, and a white wine, then switch to red if they will be having a hearty main course. The drier whites also complement fish, veal, and pasta dishes in light (butter or creambased) sauces. The sweetest white wines usually are made to be served as dessert or with desserts. White wines are always served chilled—a good temperature is between 50°F and 60°F—and, just as red wines should not be too warm, good white wines should not be too cold. The colder they become, the less character they show. Don’t “freeze out” all the flavor.

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Rosé wines are various, attractive shades of pale red, pink, or salmon, and they are sometimes referred to as blush wines. They are made from red grapes, but the juice is removed from the grape skins earlier, leaving less color in the liquid. They also are usually not fermented as long, leaving some residual sugar. The result is a wine with a lighter, fruitier taste, more like a white than a red. After years of being lumped in with such “starter wines” as White Zinfandel, rosés are now gaining new respect from wine aficionados, who once considered them somewhat unsophisticated. These wines are generally fresh and fruity, and many have a touch of sweetness, making them lovely complements to ham, turkey, or lighter styles of food. The best rosé wines from France are very dry, called Tavel, made from the Grenache grape, as well as the famous Spanish rosés from Cigales.

As mentioned, novice wine drinkers often begin with White Zinfandel or White Pinot Noir, since they provide a nice transition from soft drinks to the world of wine. However, it is probably unfair to label blush-wine drinkers as inexperienced. If someone claims to love White Zinfandel and is going to be ordering dinner, perhaps suggest one of the semi-dry rosés from France, Italy, or Spain, and you will probably have a return customer, eager to learn more.

Sparkling Wines Up to this point, the types of wines that we have discussed have been so-called still wines, or wines that do not contain bubbles. There are also sparkling wines, however, which come in red, white, and blush. Sparkling wines are often referred to as “champagne,” but the French will tell you that only wines made in the Champagne region of France can truly be called Champagne (with a capital “C”). Indeed most winemakers respect this designation, which is law in Europe and regulated by the ECC and, although there is no law governing this outside of Europe, you will find that most non-French bubbly is labeled “sparkling wine.” If these products are made in exactly the same way as French Champagnes, their label will also say Methode Champenoise or “Naturally fermented in the bottle.” Sparkling wines are also known as Sekt in Germany, Spumante or Prosecco in Italy, and Cava in Spain. Champagne is the classic wine of celebration. Sparkling wines should always be served well chilled. They complement almost any food and are also good to drink by themselves. Usually sparkling wine is sold by the bottle, but some bars and restaurants also serve it by the glass or as an ingredient in a mixed drink, such as the Mimosa, which combines a sparkler with orange juice and is popular for breakfast or brunch. (You will learn later in this chapter what puts the bubbles in sparkling wine.)

Fortified Wines Another wine category consists of wine that has extra alcohol or brandy added to it. This process is known as fortifying the wine, but the government does not allow the word fortified to be used on the label to prevent consumers from mistakenly thinking

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that it is of some health benefit. The percentage of alcohol listed on the label is your first clue: Anything with an alcohol content of over 14 percent has been fortified. Most fortified wines have an alcohol content of 17 to 19 percent. The legal limit is 24 percent. The most famous fortified wine is probably port, which is made for the most part in Portugal. Federal Standards of Identity divide fortified wines into two categories: aperitif wines and dessert wines. Aperitifs are also aromatized, which means that they are flavored with aromatic herbs and spices. Traditionally, they are sipped before dinner to stimulate the appetite or aid digestion of the upcoming meal. The word aperitif comes from a Latin word meaning “to open.” The best-known aromatized wine is vermouth, which most folks probably associate with bar liquor, not wine. Dry French vermouth is put to good use in martinis, while sweet, Italian vermouth goes into Manhattans. Vermouths, and other aromatized wines, including Dubonnet and Lillet from France, can be served straight up and well chilled, on ice, or mixed with soda and a twist of lemon. It is also popular to drink them half-and-half, that is, mixing equal parts of dry vermouth and sweet. Sherry, another aperitif, is often associated with cooking, but it has made a real comeback in recent years as an after-dinner drink. (Sherry is discussed later in this chapter in the section on Spanish wines.) The other group of fortified wines, the dessert wines, are designed to end the meal. They are rich, sweet, and heavy, and imbibed in small quantities like liqueurs. Dessert wines include Madeira (from the island of the same name off the African West coast), Marsala, Angelica, and Muscatel. There are also late harvest wines, usually white, made from grapes that have been allowed to over-ripen on the vines, almost to spoilage, for maximum sugar content. These wines are not fortified, but they are included in the dessert-wine category. Any dessert wine may be served either chilled or at room temperature.

Sake and Shochu There are some Asian products commonly known as wines, although they are either brewed (in the case of sake) or distilled (in the case of shochu), so we’ll discuss them briefly here.

Sake. In Japan, sake (pronounced SAH-kay) is a beverage made from rice, referred to as the “drink of the gods” and indeed, once was used as an offering to Shinto gods. It is unfortunate that sake’s very traditional role in Japanese culture has, in recent years, contributed to a sales decline within Japan. Between 2000 and 2005, the Japan Sake Brewers Association says its members shipped 27 percent less product in their own country, although exports rose 46 percent—with one-third of the increase coming to North America. Although the sake-making process has more in common with beer brewing than it does with winemaking (because the grain is fermented with water), the finished product often has the characteristics of a delicate white wine. Its flavor profile can range from dry to sweet and fruity. With a 14- to 16-percent alcohol content, sake is a bit more potent than wine and a great deal more potent than beer. Before the rice

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is fermented, it is polished to remove the proteins and fats in the hull that surrounds each kernel’s starchy core. If the polishing is not sufficient, the resulting product is inferior. After polishing, workers soak and steam the rice, then spread it on large tables to cool. Mold (called koji) is folded into the rice, converting the remaining starches into sugar in a climate-controlled setting. The wild spores interact with the cultivated spores, giving the sake a flavor unique to each brewery. Water is added to the moto (rice seed and yeast mash), which helps with continued fermentation and adds more bouquet and flavor. After about four weeks, when the mixture is soupy and very slightly carbonated, it is strained and bottled. Sake is not aged, and experts recommend consuming an open bottle within six months. Release dates are printed on most labels. Premium sake products fall into two major categories: a small amount of additional alcohol is added to honjozo sakes to give them a smoother taste, while junmai is pure rice sake. To aficionados, the latter has greater depth and complexity. Junmai sakes are further classified according to the percentage of rice hull that is originally removed in the polishing process—theoretically, the higher the percentage removed, the finer the sake. A third category, futsuu-shu, is the “house wine” category of inexpensive sake. The tradition of slightly heating sake before serving is done to make the cheaper products more palatable. In fact, sake is a somewhat fragile beverage that should be refrigerated, and the finer-quality products should be served lightly chilled. Some suggest that the type of rice used in the brewing and the polishing process should determine the ultimate serving temperature—but with 25 varieties of brewing rice, it’s simpler to plan on chilling the expensive bottles. Sake is also becoming increasingly popular as a sophisticated cocktail ingredient in trendy Martini and Margarita recipes. In Japan today, the number of sake breweries is on the decline, largely the result of the toji (master brewers) retiring or dying without training successors. In some cases, legal battles have ensued when Chinese companies have commandeered famous Japanese trademark names, registering them to produce in China without the consent of the original breweries’ owners. There are still about 1,200 sake breweries, some of which have U.S.-based facilities. There also are fledgling domestic U.S. sake producers in Hawaii, California, Colorado, and Oregon. The iron-free water in these states is reportedly key to successful sake brewing.

Shochu. Depending on the country in which it is made, this distilled spirit is labeled shochu (Japan), soju (Korea), or shaojiu (China). No matter what the spelling, the word means “burned liquor.” (To further confuse the issue, in some parts of Japan, when you order sake you get shochu.) Unlike sake and beer consumption, which have continued to drop in Asian countries, shochu’s popularity is on the rise. It can be made from rice, barley, soba, or buckwheat, and even from sweet potatoes, tapioca, or chestnuts. In past decades, rice shortages prompted the use of other ingredients—in Korea, the shortage was so severe that it was illegal to make soju with rice from 1965 to 1999. Although the finished product is more like vodka, some aficionados liken shochu producers to Scotch whiskey makers because the raw materials they use, some unique to their region, are key to the character of the final product. The heavier, earthier spirits are made from potatoes; the lighter, smoother ones from rice. There are other apt comparisons to Scotch making. Shochu can be distilled multiple times with several

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base ingredients added during the process, or only once using a single base ingredient. The latter type of product is referred to as Honkaku, or “authentic,” the real thing. It has a higher alcohol content (50 proof) and it is served the same ways you’d drink a fine Scotch: straight, on the rocks, or with a little water. Bottled shochu must be no more than 45 percent alcohol or less; most is 25 percent. The multi-distilled shochu (a style known as Kou-rui) is lower in alcohol, considered smoother and lighter, better for mixed drinks. Either type is traditionally served mixed with hot water in the winter. What a way to ward off a chill! The most famous area for shochu-making is on the Japanese island Kyushu, where the town of Kagoshima has been producing it since the 1500s.

THE GRAPES For wine, it all starts with the grapes. The grape contains the natural sugar, the fruit, the liquid, and the acidity that gives the wine its taste and balance; as well as the tannins (in red wines) that provide taste and longevity. From the grape’s skin comes the color of the wine. Different types of grapes exhibit different characteristics and, therefore, become different-tasting wines. There are red grapes and white grapes. Whether the red grape is actually red or blackish or purple, it is still considered a red grape. Red wines are made when red grapes are crushed and fermented (soaked) along with their skins and stems. The color leeches out of the skin into the juice. (Rosé wines are made by allowing the skin limited contact with the juice, imparting only some color.) During the fermentation process, the red wine gets its tannin. (Tannin is the same type of substance that is used to tan animal hides into leather. It is found naturally in coffee and tea, too.) In wine tannin comes from the skins and stems of the grapes, and it acts as a preservative that enables red wine to age without going stale. If you’ve ever bitten into a grape stem, you know how bitter it can taste. Tannins impart some of this bitterness to the wine and can taste unpleasant when the wine is young. But they mellow with age and are considered an important component of good, long-lasting red wine. White grapes are fermented without their skins. They are lighter in color and flavor then and lack the tannins of red wines. White wines can be made from red grapes, since the juice is separated from the skin: The color does not leech into the juice. Because the tannins are missing, however, white wines generally do not last as long (age as well) as red wines. We will briefly discuss some of the most popular wine grapes. You will see these names on most wine labels today, so you should be familiar with their pronunciations and the types of wine they produce.

Red Grape Varietals Cabernet Sauvignon (cab-er-NAY so-vin-YON) is possibly the most important and widely planted grape varietal in the world. It produces the greatest red wines of Bordeaux and the best reds in both California and Australia. This grape is often called

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simply Cabernet. The sharp tannins in young Cabernet give it the ability to last a long time in the bottle, slowly mellowing with age. Cabernet Franc (cab-er-NAY FRONK) is a close relative but is better suited, and most often used, as a blending grape. The great Burgundy wines of France are made from Pinot Noir (pee-no NWAHR). This grape is also used to make some of the world’s finest Champagnes, when the juice is separated from its red skin. Interesting red wines, lighter in body than Cabernets, are made from Pinot Noir in Oregon and California. Winemakers seem to love the challenge of growing Pinot Noir; it requires a cool climate, and needs to be babied and pruned more than other types of grape vines. Merlot (mair-LOW or mur-LOW) is an important red grape in Bordeaux, Italy, and California. At one time it was used mostly to blend with Cabernets, since it is smoother and less tannic. Now, however, you’ll find just as many Merlots as Cabernets on wine-store shelves, and they are a favorite red wine of American consumers because they are mellow and easy to drink, and can be enjoyed younger than Cabernets because of their softer tannins. Zinfandel (ZIN-fun-dell) is a red grape grown almost exclusively in California. It was once used to make inexpensive bulk wines, but it has developed its own following and there are now some exceptional California “Zins” being bottled. Zinfandel is a very adaptable grape; it can be used to make everything from sweet, pink, fruity White Zinfandels, to thick, dark, full-flavored reds best served with steaks or hearty pastas. The next hearty red wine grape is known by two names: Syrah (sir-AH) in France and California, and Shiraz (shur-OZ) in Australia. South Australia is the home of some of the world’s oldest Shiraz vines. In California Syrah plantings rank fourth behind Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Zinfandel. In France this intensely tannic, full-bodied wine is often blended with other grapes in such well-known wines as Hermitage (her-mih-TAZH) and Cote Rotie (COAT ro-TEE). The Grenache Noir (gren-OSH n’wahr) grape is not one of the best known, but it might be the most widely planted red grape in the world. Usually known simply as Grenache, it produces an elegant, lightly colored wine. You read earlier about the Tavel rosés of France; Grenache is also a major component of the Rioja (ree-OH-hah) wines of Spain, of California rosés, and of some brands of port. Do not confuse it with the white Grenache Blanc, which is most often used to blend Chateuneuf-du-Pape (shah-tow-NOOF doo POP) and Roussanne (roo-SANN) wines. Gamay Beaujolais (gam-AY BO-zha-lay) is the name of the light, fresh, and fruity red wine made from the Gamay grape. This wine was first produced in the Beaujolais region of France, but now California wineries make similar wines and call them either Gamay Beaujolais or Napa Gamay. Scientists discovered that Gamay is a clone of the Pinot Noir grape. These wines are not meant to be aged but to be consumed young. Mourvedre (moo-VED-rah) was probably originally native to Spain, where it is also known as Monastrell. California wineries may call it Mataro. No matter what the moniker, this red grape produces sturdy wines that are most often used in blending. In France, Mourvedre is the primary grape used in Bandol (BAN-dahl) wines, both red and rosé. Tempranillo (TEMP-rah-NEE-yo) is the main red wine grape of Spain, blended with Grenache to make award-winning Rioja wines. With its softer tannins, Tempranillo has developed a kind of cult following among wine lovers. Some Spanish wineries

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are now bottling 100 percent Tempranillo instead of blending it. California winemakers have tried to grow this varietal, but without as much success. In the Tuscany area of Italy, the Sangiovese (SAN-gee-oh-VAY-zee) grape makes the well-known Chianti (kee-ON-tee), a red wine with a slightly lighter color and earthy, sometimes strong, tannins. When blended with Cabernet, Merlot, and Syrah, it is the base for a trendy group of wines that were first dubbed the “super Tuscans” in the 1990s. Sangiovese is also being grown with great success in California. The other famous Tuscan red wine is Brunello (broo-NELL-oh) which is made from a Sangiovese clone (called Sangiovese Grosso). Like the famous Barolo and Barbarescos of Piedmont, Brunello is one of Italy’s greatest and age-worthy wines. There’s a bit of controversy about a well-known Tuscan wine, Vino Nobile de Montepulciano, made from a Sangiovese grape or clone around the village of Montepulciano. In other regions of Italy (Abruzzo and the Marche on the Adriatic coast) there is a grape called Montepulciano (mon-ta-PULL-chee-AH-no), similar to Sangiovese, but with no connection to the Sangiovese grown in Tuscany. The wine, Montepulciano d’Abruzzo, has become a very popular rival to the Chiantis on today’s wine lists and in by-the-glass programs. In Italy’s Piedmont region the Nebbiolo (neb-ee-OH-loh) grape is blended with others to make Barolo (bah- RO-loe) and Barbaresco (BAR-bah-RESS-koe) wines. Barbera (bar-BAHR-ah) is another Italian red grape that has transplanted well in California, where it is used for blending and for making a variety of wine styles. Finally, there is Lambrusco (lam-BROOS-koe), a grape grown in Northern Italy that produces a very fruity, rather sweet red wine with a fizzy characteristic (in Italian, frizzante). Some people think it tastes more like a soft drink than a wine, but it is popular nonetheless. Two very popular reds from South America now getting a lot of attention are Carmenere (CAR-men-YAIR) from Chile, sometimes called “the lost Bordeaux” grape, brought in from France; and Malbec (MAHL-beck) from Argentina. Both varietals are grown in Bordeaux and California, where they are used as blending grapes in some of the world’s great wines. In Chile and Argentina, however, they make very respectable single-varietal wines as well as blends—and at bargain prices, too.

White Grape Varietals Chardonnay (SHAR-dah-NAY) is the white wine grape most Americans are familiar with. In fact it is the world’s most popular wine grape because it can be grown almost anywhere and develops characteristics based on the soil and climate in which the vines are planted. It also adapts well to a variety of winemaking styles. The grape produces mostly dry wines of strong body and distinctive flavor. Chardonnay is the best-selling wine in California and is the base for all French Chablis (shah-BLEE) wines, as well as the famous white Burgundies of France. Chardonnay grapes are grown all over Europe, in Australia, and in New Zealand. In California, the grape second only to Chardonnay is Sauvignon Blanc (SO-vinyon BLONK). In France it is the predominant white grape of Bordeaux. It is used

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to make the dry, fruity wines of the Graves (GRAHVZ) district; the rich, golden Sauternes (saw-TURN); and the fresh, crisp Loire Valley whites called Sancerre (san-SAIR) and Pouilly Fumé (POO-ee foo-MAY). New Zealand is developing an excellent reputation for its intense, acidic Sauvignon Blanc wines. In California a few wineries label their products Fumé Blanc (FOO-may BLONK). Semillon (SEM-ee-YON) used to be a grape used primarily for blending with Chardonnay, Graves, and Sauternes wines, but it has developed a loyal following and is now bottled separately by many wineries. Semillon makes a dry wine known for its rich fruit flavor. It is high in acidity when young, but it can mellow in the bottle with age. Like Semillon, Viognier (VEE-ohn-YAY) is another white grape that has garnered recent attention on its own merits. It produces a lightly sweet, intensely fruity wine that was once used primarily in blending other wines—until adventurous winemakers saw its potential as an alternative to Sauvignon Blancs and Rieslings and began bottling it separately. Viognier can be expensive because not much of it is planted anywhere in the world; it is considered a temperamental grape to grow. Riesling (REES-ling) is the fruity white grape used to make many German wines, including sweet, late-harvest or dessert wines. In the past, it got a reputation for being sweet, but some of the best Rieslings are sophisticated wines, fully fermented and intensely fruity but also very dry. Although this varietal is also widely grown in California, it requires a cooler climate to do well. Chenin Blanc (SHEN-in BLONK) grapes make tasty white wines, such as Vouvray (voov-RAY), in the Loire Valley region of France. Some of them are sparkling wines. Chenin Blanc is also a widely planted white grape in California, where it is made in a variety of styles ranging from dry to sweet. In South African winemaking, Chenin Blanc is called Steen. Gewurztraminer (ga-VURTZ-tra-mee-ner) is the spicy white (actually pink) grape of the French Alsace region and parts of Germany. (Gewurz means spice in German.) This grape typically makes a flavorful dry white wine but like the Riesling, it can produce late-harvest sweet wines. In California this grape produces both dry and sweet wines. It is also grown in Australia and New Zealand. Albarino (al-bah-REEN-yoh) is an increasingly popular Spanish white grape. It makes a wine similar to Viognier, but with the strong body of a Riesling. Enologists have traced it to the Riesling grape family. In Portugal it is known as Alvarinho and is often used to make an easy-to-drink “summer wine” with a bit of spritz and sweetness, called Vinho Verde (VEE-no VAIR-day). The name means “green wine,” meant to be drunk in its first year after bottling. There are white and red Vinho Verdes, but mostly whites are found in the United States. Pinot Blanc (PEE-no BLONK) is a white grape grown in Alsace, northern Italy, and along the West Coast of the United States, in Washington, Oregon, and California. It is an especially good grape for making sparkling wine, and is occasionally bottled as a still, varietal wine in California. Pinot Blanc is often confused with Pinot Grigio (PEE-no GREE-zhee-oh), a completely different white grape grown primarily in Italy, France, and Oregon that is quickly increasing in popularity. Pinot Grigio grapes can be made into two different styles of wines: The Italians are known for being light and crisp; the French are deeper and richer in flavor. Pinot Grigio is sometimes known simply as Pinot Gris (PEE-no GREE).

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white red white red red white black or white red white red white red white white white red white red

Chenin Blanc Gamay Gewürztraminer

Grenache Merlot Müller-Thurgau Muscat Nebbiolo Pinot Blanc Pinot Noir

Riesling

Sangiovese Sauvignon Blanc Sémillon Silvaner Syrah, Shiraz Trebbiano Zinfandel

medium to full medium light to medium light medium to full light to medium medium to full

light to medium

full light to medium medium to full

light to medium light to medium soft to medium

medium light to medium medium

medium to full medium to full medium to full

Body

dry dry dry dry dry dry dry

slightly sweet

dry dry sweet medium to sweet dry dry dry

slightly sweet dry dry

dry dry dry

Sweetness

medium to full medium medium light intense light to medium medium to intense

delicate

light to medium soft, delicate mild to medium medium to full intense light medium to full

medium delicate spicy, full

medium to intense medium to full medium to full

Flavor Intensity

Region/Country of Use California, Italy California, Bordeaux, Australia California, Burgundy, Chablis, Champagne, Italy, Spain, Bulgaria, Australia, New Zealand California, Loire Beaujolais California, Alsace, Australia, New Zealand California, Rhône, Spain, Australia California, Italy, Bordeaux Germany Italy, Alsace, Bulgaria Italy California, Italy, Alsace, Champagne California, Burgundy, Oregon, Champagne, Australia Germany, Alsace, Australia, California, Washington, Oregon Italy California, Bordeaux, Loire, Chile California, Bordeaux Alsace, Germany Rhône, Australia Italy California

FIGURE 6.1 There are hundreds of grape varieties; this list contains 21 of the most common used in winemaking.

red red white

Color

Barbera Cabernet Sauvignon Chardonnay

Grape

GRAPE VARIETIES

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Marsanne (mar-SOHN) is a hardy white grape from Southern France that is a component of many Rhone wines, some just as good as higher-priced Chardonnays. It is also widely grown in Australia. A Muscat (MUS-kat) grape can be either red or white, and the wines made from it, all over the world, are usually sweet. Italy’s popular, sweet sparkler, Asti Spumante, is made from a white Muscat (called Moscato in Italy). Among Italy’s white grapes is the Trebbiano (treb-ee-AH-no), which makes such varied wines as the light, dry Soave (SWAH-vay) from Verona in northeast Italy and sparkling wines in the Po Valley. Vernaccia (vair-NOTCH-ee-ah) is used in unique Tuscan white wines called Vernaccia di San Gimignano, along with the Cortese (kor-TAY-see) grapes that make the great Cortese di Gavi and Gavi di Gavi wines. Verdicchio (vair-DEE-kee-oh) is another white Italian varietal that produces a complex wine worthy of aging. Müller-Thurgau (MYOOL-ur TUR-gau) is the most widely grown grape in Germany. It makes many soft, aromatic white wines of varying degrees of sweetness, but experts generally feel it cannot compare with the Riesling for quality. Grüner Veltliner (GROO-nur VELT-lin-er), Riesling’s distant cousin in Austria has become the latest new white wine darling, finding its way to most fine restaurants and many by-the-glass programs. It is softer than the better-known German Rieslings. This white grape makes up bout one-third of all Austrian vineyards and is also widely grown in the Czech Republic. Torrontes (tor-RON-tess), a white varietal popular in Argentina, is also grown in northern Spain and Portugal and is like a softer version of Sauvignon Blanc with a flowery bouquet. You’ll find an alphabetical list of many of these grapes as Figure 6.1. No one can possibly remember them all, so this is material you should plan to return to periodically as you learn more about wines.

HOW WINES ARE MADE All wines begin in the same way, with the grapes, the soil, the weather, and the winemaker combining to turn the same basic product into an infinite variety of forms. It is a process in which nature plays a large part. The climate in which grapes grow is a very important influence on how they taste. Warm climates yield ripe grapes and rich wines: The riper and sweeter the grapes at harvest, the more alcoholic the wine. Australia, parts of California, and southern France, for example, have this potential. Cool climates, including those of Germany, northern Italy, and the Champagne region in France, typically produce “greener” (less ripe) grapes and lighter wines. Year after year in any given district, the ripeness and quality of the grapes at harvest will vary according to the weather, which means that the wines will vary in quality, too. This is why the vintage of a fine wine is important. As you’ve learned, vintage refers to the year the grapes were harvested and the winemaking process began. Four factors—the grapes, the climate and soil or terroir in a given location, the weather in a given year, and the winemaker (meaning, in this case, the decisions that go into how the wine is made)—combine to determine the character of an individual wine. Each wine will be different from any other.

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It’s ironic that grapes grow best in gravelly soil that is considered poor for other types of crops, on well-drained land (such as hillsides), in a temperate climate with enough sun and warmth to develop their sugar, and a little rain at the right times. As the grapes mature, they increase in sugar content and decrease in acidity. It takes about 100 days of sunshine from blossom to harvest before the grapes ripen to the precise balance of sugar and acid that makes the best possible wine. The moment of harvest is determined by frequent taste-testing for sugar content and by keeping an eye on the weather forecast. A heavy rain on ripe grapes can be a disaster, swelling the grapes and diluting their complexity.

The Winemaking Process Within 12 hours, or as soon as possible after being picked from their vines, the whole, ripened grapes begin their journey (see Figure 6.2). If a white wine is being made, the grapes, no matter what their color, go through a crusher/stemmer that removes the stalks and breaks the skins. Then the grapes are pressed to extract their juices. The skins are discarded, and the juice, now called must, is channeled into a fermentation tank. For a red wine or a rosé, dark-skinned grapes are crushed, then both must and skins go into a fermentation tank. It is the red or black or purple skins that yield the color, as well as much of the character, of a red wine. For a rosé, the skins are left in the fermenting must briefly (12 to 24 hours), which is just long enough to achieve the color desired. The must is then pumped into another tank, leaving the skins behind. For any type of wine, before fermentation begins special strains of yeast are added. Traditionally, winemakers depended on the wild yeasts found naturally on grape skins, but today American winemakers use laboratory-produced yeast cultures to ensure a more predictable result. The wild yeasts are killed off, either by the special yeasts or by the addition of sulfur dioxide. In some parts of the world, when the climate or the weather has not produced enough sugar in the grapes, extra sugar— fine-grained “powdered sunshine”—is added before fermentation begins. This is called chapitalization. In the fermentation tank, the yeasts feed on the sugar and break it down: One molecule of sugar yields two molecules of alcohol and two molecules of carbon dioxide. Fermentation continues for one to two weeks, or even longer, until the sugar is consumed or the alcohol content becomes high enough (around 14 percent) to kill the yeast. The process stops automatically unless the winemaker intervenes. If the sugar has been completely consumed by the yeast, the wine is dry. If sugar remains, there is sweetness in the wine. When fermentation stops, the wine is placed in large casks or vats. During the making of red wines, the skins are pressed out in the transfer. The wine pressed from the skins is rich in such extracts as tannin, giving the wine more character. Each wine is stored until residues (the lees) settle out and the wine stabilizes. Periodically the wine is drawn off the residues and placed in a fresh cask to settle further. This is known as racking. When the wine falls bright (becomes clear) it is moved to other vats or casks for maturing.

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WHITE WINE Red or white grapes

RED WINE Red grapes

ROSE WINE Red grapes

Destemmed, skins broken

Destemmed, crushed

Destemmed, crushed

Grapes are pressed

Fermenting with skins

Fermenting with skins 12–24 hours

Fermenting

Fermenting, must alone

Skins pressed

Racking Racking

Racking

Maturing

Aging

Bottling

Aging

Maturing

Bottling

Bottling

FIGURE 6.2 The winemaking process varies slightly, depending on the type of wine being produced: white, red, or rosé (blush).

242

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White wines and rosés are often matured in vats lined with plastic or glass or in stainless-steel containers. These wines are usually ready for bottling in a few months. Most red wines and certain whites are aged in wood casks (usually oak) from six months, to two years or more. Here, they undergo changes that mellow and smooth them and develop their special character. Some elements of flavor are absorbed from the wood. Some changes come from slight evaporation of the wine in the casks. Other mysterious chemistry occurs within the wine itself, contributing complexities of flavor, especially to wines that age slowly. A winemaker’s decisions about how long to age a wine and in which type of container—tanks or wood, old or new wood (the newer the barrel, the more intense the wood character it imparts), large casks or small barrels (small ones yield more intense wood character than big ones)—are significant in deciding the wine’s quality and price. The moment when the wine is ready for bottling is also determined by the winemaker’s taste. When tannins and acids soften and become more agreeable, the wine is moved from the cask to the bottle. Before the bottling process, the fine particles that remain in the wine are filtered out or spun out by centrifuge. The wine is then bottled, and the bottles are individually sealed.

The Great Cork Controversy We will depart from the winemaking process just briefly to explain one of the most controversial ongoing issues in the wine world: how to seal the bottles. Over the centuries and in various countries, bottles have been sealed with pitch, gypsum, or plugs (called stoppels) made of ground-up glass. Bottles have even been stuffed with leather or cloth and coated with wax. Sealing bottles was an inexact process because the bottles and, therefore, their openings were not uniformly made until the last 100 years or so. Cork is a successful closure because it can fit snugly into the neck of almost any type of bottle. Cork’s flexibility enables it to be compressed. It is light, moisture-resistant, and doesn’t deteriorate, even under extreme temperatures. All of these qualities, which modern winemakers still value, allowed greater freedom of trade in the past. It was no longer necessary to ship wine in bulk in casks or barrels to keep it from spoiling. In today’s wine bottling process, a capsule—a cap of foil or plastic—is placed over the cork for additional protection. Corks are pieces of bark from the suberin oak tree that grows mostly in Portugal and Spain (see Figure 6.3). (Other nations have tried unsuccessfully to plant them.) The tree has two layers of bark: the inner layer is alive; the outer layer is the one that is stripped and used to make not only wine corks but also insulating tiles for floors and walls. The harvesting process is very interesting but too long to detail here. It does not harm the tree; Portugese laws are strict about ensuring protection of the cork oak forests. However, each tree requires almost a decade of growth to replace its stripped outer bark layer. Cork producers insist there is enough cork to supply not only the wine industry but also for flooring and other uses for the next century, and that the suberin forests are regenerating at a rate of about 4 percent yearly.

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FIGURE 6.3 Although it doesn’t look like it could survive being stripped of its outer cork layer, this suberin oak tree will grow a new outer layer in eight or nine years. Photo used with permission, copyright Armstrong World Industries, Lancaster, Pennsylvania.

In the mid-1990s several factors combined to send the wine world frantically looking for synthetic alternatives to cork. In addition to a climate of environmental activism and rumors about a possible cork shortage after a drought in Portugal, there were complaints that the overall quality of wine corks had deteriorated. Experts and studies (and there are many) suggested from 1 to 12 percent of wines were contaminated by 2, 4, 6-Trichloroanisole (TCA), a harmless but smelly combination of mold, chlorine, and moisture that sometimes forms on natural cork, permeating the wine inside the bottle and tainting it with an off-putting, musty odor. (When wine is referred to as corked, TCA is often the culprit. However, TCA can also form on other surfaces, such as barrels, bottles, and pallets.) TCA taint is reputed to cost U.S. winemakers $100 million annually. In response to the problem, some supermarket chains in the United Kingdom decided to boycott wines with corks. New Zealand was among the first countries to adopt a policy promoting the use of screwtops or screw caps, which until then had been associated with wines of lower price and quality. Australia and California soon followed—and the debate was on, and still going strong. A brief summary of the two sides’ arguments follows.

Pro-Cork. The cork producers have accused the synthetic closure manufacturers of exaggerating the problem. They began questioning the safety and longevity of plastic stoppers and screwtops and touting the fact that corks are recyclable and biodegradable. They claim that synthetic stoppers can be harder to get out of bottles. They call the term “cork taint” a misnomer, pointing out (correctly) that TCA can be found at many steps in the winemaking process, as well as in transport and storage after bottling. They say plastic liners in screwcaps can also emit “off ” odors. They even defend the cork forests as being better for the environment, as trees in general store carbon dioxide in the atmosphere that contributes to greenhouse gases and global warming. In March 2006, in an obvious move to show loyalty to its cork industry, the Spanish government changed its Denominacion de Origen requirements to forbid the use of alternative wine closures in 11 of Spain’s wine-producing regions. In 2009, Corticeira Amorim—the Portugese conglomerate that leads the world in natural cork production—released a study by Pricewaterhouse Coopers touting the long-term environmental benefits of natural cork. During a 100-year period, it said, “plastic stoppers result in nearly 10 times greater emissions of CO2 equivalent (CO2e) than natural cork, and screwcaps are responsible for 24 times more CO2e than natural cork.” The study looked at seven indicators, from the energy and water used to make the noncork closures, to solid waste production in their manufacture. In every measure except water use during its “life cycle,” the traditional cork comes out on top.

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Pro–“Alternative Closure”. The synthetic team has countered with its own salient points: that wines with stoppers or screwtops don’t have to be stored on their sides, and that synthetic stoppers don’t break or crumble like corks. They call natural cork a quality control nightmare, and claim TCA is impossible to control. The synthetic closure preserves the tradition of removing a “cork” from the bottle without adding any flavors or odors to the wine. Synthetics cost less than half of what cork costs, and come in a variety of colors that allow for “matching” closures to labels or logos. Since most wines are consumed within a year of their release—70 percent within the same week it is purchased—users of alternative closures say it seems unlikely that being sealed with something other than a cork will hurt the quality of the wine. In 1997, owners of the prestigious Napa Valley winery PlumpJack decided they would try a daring experiment, bottling one-half of their high-end reserve Cabernet Sauvignon with natural cork, and one-half with screwcaps. These are wines that sell for up to $200 per bottle. Ten years later, in a vertical tasting, PlumpJack General Manager John Conover reported no appreciable difference. So today, more than 10 percent of wineries use synthetic closures. The best known is Supreme Corq, made in a Seattle, Washington, suburb. Some wineries use aluminum screwtops lined with plastic; the best known of these is probably the Frenchmade Stelvin. Others are trying cap-like closures similar to those on liquor bottles (called Torqued On Pilfer-Proof [TOPP] caps), and still others continue to use corks. For winemakers and sellers, the major benefit of the cork controversy is that it has forced cork producers to sharpen their game. Their product used to be the only option and, in the face of competition, they have worked harder in recent years to focus on quality, innovation, and marketing. Many wineries continue to study the long-term effects of different types of closures. No doubt the debate will rage on.

Aging and Blending Winemaking is an expensive business, and many wineries cannot afford to have their products sit in inventory, whether in vats, barrels, or bottles. As a result many of today’s pleasant, easy-to-drink wines are not made for longevity but to be enjoyed within a year or two of being bottled. However, others must undergo further aging in the bottle. When people talk about aging a wine, they refer to the flavors and complexity of the wine that can develop in the bottle if the wine sits for a few years before being consumed. For aging, the bottles are usually stored on their sides in a cool dark place. These are the types of bottles with traditional cork closures, and laying them on their sides keeps the cork moist so that it does not shrink and become loose, which can ruin the wine by allowing air into the bottle. Fine wines are often sold before they are ready to drink, to merchants or collectors who are willing to store the wine for an additional period of time. A vintage date identifying the year the grapes were harvested is essential to wines that mature slowly. Most wines are blends of different grape varieties, grapes from different vineyards, or wines of different vintages or degrees of maturity. Blended wines are sometimes known as meritage (MAIR-ih-tij) wines. The blending may be done at different points of the winemaking process (which is why you don’t see it in Figure 6.2).

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Sometimes the grapes themselves are blended before crushing. Sometimes the new wines are blended during racking. Sometimes wines are blended after they mature. Blending serves several purposes. It may be done to produce the finest wine possible, to maintain product consistency from one year to the next, to tailor a wine to a special market, to make more wine for less money, or to make the best of a bad year by combining some mediocre grapes with some better ones. In the bottle wine continues to change. In fact wine is a living substance that evolves more or less quickly from youth, to maturity, to senility, and each wine has its own rate of maturity and its own life span. White wines and rosés mature most quickly. Most moderately priced whites and rosés mature early and are put on the market ready to drink within a few months after harvest. They have a life span of two to five years, depending on the wine. Premium whites are not ready to drink quite as early, but they can last longer. Generally, the better the wine to begin with, the longer the life span. Red wines mature more slowly than whites, but the rate of maturity varies greatly from one red wine to another. Light-bodied reds, for example, Beaujolais, Valpolicella and inexpensive light Cabernets, are generally best within three years of their vintage. Fuller, richer reds can generally live many more years, thanks to the tannins and acidity that preserve them. Some of the finest wines may take 8 to 10 years or even longer to reach their peak, and may be drinkable for decades thereafter. Most wines today list their vintage on the bottle. In addition to telling how old the wine is, it can be a clue to quality for the better wines. There are great, poor, and average years for wines, depending on the weather. A great vintage year produces a wine of finer taste and longer life span than an ordinary year. A great year in one region may be a poor year in another, however. A vintage date must always be evaluated in terms of the specific district and the specific wine. Before we leave the subject of winemaking, a note on sulfites is in order. Sulfur dioxide exists naturally in wines in small quantities as a by-product of fermentation. It is also an invaluable tool of winemakers at every stage. It protects wine from spoilage from contact with air, kills bacteria, inhibits “bad” yeasts while stimulating “good” yeasts, helps preserve aroma, purifies used barrels, and keeps the finished wine fresh and stable. The phrase contains sulfites on a wine label points out a fact that has always been true, a natural occurrence. But there are a few people—a very small percentage— who develop serious allergic reactions to sulfites. The government requires the label statement for their protection. Herein lies the problem, however: Many commercial wines have sulfites added to them that are not naturally made, to help preserve them. It is usually these added “synthetic” sulfites that affect those with allergic reactions. The percentage of naturally occurring sulfites in wine is minute.

The Making of a Sparkling Wine Sparkling wines and fortified wines are made by adding something to the process described above. To make a sparkling wine, winemakers add yeast and sugar to still wine to prompt a second fermentation. This is done in closed containers, so that the carbon dioxide produced cannot escape and, thus, becomes part of the wine. In the French Champagne method mentioned earlier (Methode Champenoise, pronounced “methODE SHAMP-en-WAHZ”), the closed containers are the heavy glass bottles in which

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the still wine was first bottled. This is a long, complicated process involving handling each bottle many times, removing sediment bottle by bottle, and other refinements. All of this makes the Champagne very expensive and very good. A wine made in the United States using the Champagne method may legally be called Champagne. It may mention the Champagne process on the label or it may say “Fermented in this bottle.” Two other methods have been developed to shorten the more time-consuming process. In the Charmat (shar-MOT) or bulk process, refermentation is carried out in large, closed pressurized tanks, then the wine is bottled under pressure. Such wines can be very modestly priced, but they do not begin to approach the quality of those made by the Champagne method. For example, they lose their bubbles quickly. In the United States, the label must refer to this type of wine as a sparkling wine rather than Champagne. The label may contain the words champagne style or champagne type, or may call it American (or New York State, California, etc.) champagne-bulk process. The other alternate method referments the still wine in bottles but then transfers it under pressure to other bottles, filtering it during the transfer. This results in a moderately priced product of a quality that might satisfy many consumers but not more sophisticated wine drinkers. Sparkling wines made in this way are labeled fermented in the bottle. Figure 6.4 shows a Spanish sparkling wine label. It is indicative of the trend toward a cleaner, less cluttered look for the bottle by squeezing most of the information onto a back label.

FIGURE 6.4 A sparkling wine label from Spain. Wine can’t technically be called “Champagne” if it is not made in the Champagne district of France. Courtesy of Classical Wines of Spain, Seattle, Washington.

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HOW WINES ARE NAMED The bewildering variety of table wines on the market is enough to confuse anyone, whether the person is a restaurateur introducing wines for the first time or a customer struggling to make a selection in a supermarket wine aisle. The picture may become simpler when we examine why wines are named the way they are. Every label must carry a name to identify the product inside the bottle. In the United States, wines are named three ways: by the predominant variety of grape used (varietal), by broad general type (generic), or by brand name. Imported wines may also be named by these methods, but a fourth method is more common: by place of origin.

Varietal Names A varietal wine is one in which a single grape variety predominates. The name of the grape is the name of the wine, and that grape gives the wine its predominant flavor and aroma. Well-known examples are Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, and Zinfandel. In the United States, to be named for a particular grape the wine must contain at least 75 percent of that grape. Within the European Economic Community the minimum is 85 percent, and some countries or districts have raised that requirement to 100 percent. In France, the figure has been 100 percent for some time. Varietals are very popular in the United States, and they are well worth exploring for your wine list. The names, once learned, are quickly recognized, and the betterknown varietals almost sell themselves. Varietals range in price from moderate to high, depending to some extent on the wine quality. You should taste them before buying because they can vary greatly from one producer to another and one vintage to another. (Of course, this is true of all wines.) The name and fame of the grape alone do not guarantee the quality of a wine.

Generic Names A generic wine is a U.S. wine of a broad general style or type, such as Burgundy or Chablis. Their names are borrowed from European wines that come from well-known wine districts, but their resemblance to these European wines is slight to nonexistent. Federal law requires all U.S. generics (the law refers to them as semigenerics) to include a place of origin on the label (such as California, Washington State, Napa Valley, or even America). The idea is to distinguish them clearly from the grapes of European wines whose names they have borrowed. The best of the generics are pleasant, uncomplicated, affordable wines that restaurants can serve as house wines. If you are exploring generics to serve at your bar or restaurant, the only way to determine reliable character and quality is to taste them: The name will not necessarily provide any clues. Those that come in largesize bottles, 1½ to 3 liters or even 4 liters, are sometimes called jug wines, although

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the industry prefers the term extreme-value wines for any of the lower-cost product. Some come in bag-in-a-box form, a sturdy cardboard box lined with a heavy plastic bag that holds 10 to 15 gallons of wine. The wine is dispensed through a spigot in the side of the box, and the bag shrinks as wine is removed so that the wine remaining in the bag is unspoiled by contact with air. Many wineries have begun to use the names Red Table Wine and White Table Wine instead of the old generic names. These are inexpensive blends like the generics and can be used as house wines if they pass your own taste test.

Brand Names A brand-name wine may be anything from an inexpensive blend, to a very fine wine with a prestigious pedigree. A brand name, also called a proprietary name (in France, a monopole) is one that belongs exclusively to a vineyard or a shipper who produces and/or bottles the wine and takes responsibility for its quality. A brand name distinguishes a wine from others of the same class or type. It is a means of building an identity in the mind of a customer who is used to choosing liquors and beers by brand, is confused by the profusion of wines from which to choose, and would rather pick one and stay with it, as he or she would select a favorite beer. Winemakers, who for the most part are feisty nonconformists, have released a host of high-quality blends with clever brand names to add personality and marketing panache to their products. The wines of California’s Bonny Doon Vineyard are perfect examples. Eccentric winemaker Randall Grahm (who believes, according to his website, that “wine should be as much fun as government regulations allow”) has a fiercely loyal following among connoisseurs for both his humor and his winemaking skills. Grahm gives his wines such names as Le Cigare Volant (“The Flying Cigar,” both red and white blends), Cardinal Zin (a Zinfandel, of course); and Big House (yes, there’s a prison on the label) Red, White, and Pink. Remember, a brand name alone does not tell you anything definitive about the wine. The reputation of the producer and the taste of the wine are better clues.

Place-of-Origin Names Many imported wines use their place of origin as the name on their label. The place of origin is usually a rigidly controlled area that produces superior wines of a certain character because of its special soil, climate, grapes, and production methods. Wines from such an area must meet stringent government regulations and standards of that nation in order to use the name. The defined area may be large (e.g., a district or a region) or small (e.g., a commune, a parish, a village, or a vineyard). Generally the smaller the subdivision, the more rigorous the standards and the more famous the wine. Along with the area name on the label is a phrase meaning “controlled name of origin.” It may be, for example, Appellation Controlee in France or Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC) in Italy. Other countries have similar requirements for

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using the name of a particular place of origin. Figures 6.5 and 6.6 show an Italian wine label and a Spanish sherry label, respectively. Wine exporters are trying harder to make their products’ labels easier to decipher. Generally, a wine from a controlled area has a certain claim to quality, and the best wine-growing areas have the strongest claim. The name is not a guarantee, however, and all wines from the same area are not the same. Picking the right wines from the right places is a job for an expert. Ultimately, a good producer is the only assurance of quality. In recent decades in the United States, a system called Approved Viticultural Appellations (AVA) has been in force. Through this system, the names of unique vineyard areas (for instance, Napa Valley, Russian River Valley, and Sonoma County) are officially defined and their use is controlled. New AVAs are continually being approved. These geographic names are generally coupled with a varietal name, and there is no indication on the wine label as to whether a geographic name is an approved AVA or not.

Vintage year (on neck of bottle)

Brand name

Name of wine

Bottled on the producer’s premises (sometimes in Italian)

DOCG (government classification of region)

Winery name

FIGURE 6.5 Italian wine labels are not so daunting when you know what to look for!

Courtesy of Palm Bay Imports,

Boca Raton, Florida.

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FIGURE 6.6 A Spanish sherry label is representative of a worldwide trend to keep front labels relatively uncluttered. Many wines now include a back label with information and the required U.S. government warning. Courtesy of Classical Wines of Spain, Seattle, Washington.

A WHIRLWIND WORLD WINE TOUR Like the rest of the business world, the wine industry has “gone global,” with so much import and export trade between nations that anyone, anywhere, can cultivate an international palate. The five winemaking powerhouses of the European Union (EU) are responsible for two-thirds of the wine imported in the world; the United States has managed to command only 6 percent of the import market, and a variety of other, smaller-producing countries share the remaining 27 percent.

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In the United States, most of the non-European or so-called “New World” competition comes from Australia, where grape production is soaring (with the exception of a major drought in 2006), and the government aggressively promotes wine exportation by helping wineries with overseas advertisement and shipping costs. In an interesting development, however, California joined Argentina, Chile, New Zealand, and South Africa to form the “New World Wine Alliance” in 2009. In a news release announcing the partnership, the trade group Wines of Argentina said, “All five countries have succeeded in building their wine trades on the back of aggressive branding; by demystifying wine and thus attracting new consumers; by playing up their regional strengths and unique features and by focusing on technical, packaging and marketing innovation, while giving increasing accent to sustainable wine-growing and wine production.” As far as we know, California has no plans to secede from the United States to pursue its destiny as a top wine-producing nation! The state does export an estimated 55 million cases per year, however—more than any other partner in the new alliance except Chile. There are numerous lists compiled claiming to be the “Top Ten Wine-Producing Countries.” Unfortunately, despite a plethora of online information (or perhaps because of it) it is impossible to determine their validity. Some are based on sales figures, others on overall volume produced. At this writing, the lists are based on figures from 2005 to 2007. For the most part, the “Top Five” are the same in every ranking—France, Italy, Spain, the United States, and Argentina—although Italy and France may swap places on some lists. The nations that hold the sixth through tenth slots jockey significantly for position, depending on the list criteria. They usually include Australia, Chile, Germany, and South Africa, but the final slot is a wild card—sometimes Portugal; sometimes Brazil. On one list, Germany drops to number 11. A fascinating development is the recent addition of China, with a winemaking industry scarcely known beyond its own borders, to most Top Ten lists. Let’s take a quick spin around the globe to discuss each country’s major strengths and challenges in the wine trade—no matter where they fit onto anyone’s master list.

Wines from France France has an interesting dilemma. Despite being among the world’s most prolific wine producers, its own people are drinking less. Wine consumption has decreased slowly but steadily in France to less than half what it was in 1980. The French still drink much more wine per year (55 liters per person in 2008) than Americans (12 liters per person), although fully half the legal-age French population claims to not drink wine at all. One study traces the decline to the rise in fast-food popularity in Europe, prompting fewer family meals and sit-down business lunches. No matter who consumes fine French wines, they lead the world in prestige, and no wine list in any upscale restaurant or fashionable hotel would be complete without these choices. Patrons who know wines may expect to see several well-known French wines at very high prices on the wine list, even if they do not order any of them, along with several wines at lower prices that they would be glad to buy. The label on the

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bottle will carry the name of a well-known vineyard or commune, a district or shipper, a vintage date, and the phrase Appellation Controlee, indicating that all of the government requirements have been met. Rarely will a French wine be identified by the name of the grape. However, as you will see, the same outstanding wine grapes are used all over the world to produce high-quality wines. In France the major wine producing regions are Bordeaux, Burgundy, the Rhone Valley (Côtes du Rhône), the Loire Valley, Champagne, and Alsace. The wines of the Bordeaux region have been famous since Roman times. Bordeaux wines come in a high-shouldered bottle (see Figure 6.7a). A wine spoken of as “a Bordeaux” means a red wine from Bordeaux; it is also referred to by the British term claret. Bordeaux produces a range of wines, from connoisseurs’ dreams, to everyday table wines, from more than 50 distinct regions within the Bordeaux area. Nearly all red Bordeaux is made by blending grapes, mainly Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Cabernet Franc. The style of the wine depends on the blend, which varies from one producer to another. There are two distinct production areas, divided by the Gironde River. On one side, in the Medoc and Graves districts, Cabernet is the main grape. On the other side of the river, in Pomerol and St. Emilion and numerous satellite zones, Merlot and Cabernet Franc tend to dominate the grape blend. Most prestigious are the Bordeaux wines named for the chateau (vineyard) that produces them. The best wine from each vintage is usually bottled at the vineyard and carries the phrase Mis en bouteille au château (literally, “placed in the bottle at the vineyard”) or the phrase Mise du château. The rest of a vintage may be sold to a shipper, or a negociant, who blends wines from various vineyards to sell under

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) FIGURE 6.7 Traditional bottle shapes: (a) Bordeaux, (b) Burgundy, (c) Rhine, Mosel, Alsace, (d) Bocksbeutel (German Franken, Chile, Portugal), (e) Champagne and other sparkling wines (heavy, with a wired cork).

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the shipper’s label or under a monopole, which is a registered brand name. At the top of the Bordeaux-quality pyramid are the classified growths, chateau wines that were recognized as the leaders as long ago as 1855 when Napoleon III ordered an official classification of French wines. Such chateau wines as Lafite-Rothschild, Latour, Margaux, Mouton-Rothschild, and Haut-Brion are known as the first growths and are the most prestigious. There are 65 classified growths in the Medoc and Graves, ranging from first growths to fifth growths. In St. Emilion 74 chateaux are classified as Premiers Grand Crus Classes or Grand Crus Classes, but they are little known because most are too small to produce much. There are also plenty of Bordeaux reds, either generic or monopole, blended from wines produced anywhere in the large Bordeaux zone or from vineyards in a specific commune, such as St. Julien and St. Estephe. Some of these wines are outstanding. In addition to the reds for which it is famous, Bordeaux produces white wines from the Semillon and Sauvignon grapes. Those from the Graves district are fresh, dry, full-bodied, and fruity. Those from the Sauternes district to the south, although made from the same grapes as the Graves wines, are very different; they are extraordinarily sweet and rich. These qualities come from the warm climate and especially from the harvesting method. The grapes are left on the vines until they are overripe and develop Botrytis cinerea, a special mold known as noble rot (pourriture noble in French, Edelfaule in German). This mold dries the grapes, concentrating their sugar and flavor. Each bunch is individually selected at its peak of desirability; a vineyard may be handpicked in this way as many as eight times. The wines from Sauternes are served at the end of a meal, either with dessert or as dessert. Of the Sauternes wines, Chateau d’Yquem is the ultimate in terms of fame and fortune. Burgundy wines also belong on a fine-wine list. The French wines referred to as Burgundy are the classical reds made from the Pinot Noir grape in the Cote d’Or region. Like the Bordeaux, they are wines of great character and long life. They are shipped in a Burgundy bottle (see Figure 6.7b.) Burgundy vineyards are also classified for quality; the magic phrase here is Grand Cru, which means “great growth.” Of the Grand Cru vineyards, the most famous are Romanee-Conti, Clos de Vougeot, and Chambertin, followed by certain hyphenated Chambertins (from villages with hyphenated names, such as Gevrey-Chambertin) and Musigny. Knowing what sort of wine lies beneath the label of a Burgundy wine is a far more complicated business than it is for a Bordeaux wine. In Bordeaux, each vineyard (chateau) is owned by a single family or corporation, but in Burgundy a single vineyard might be owned by many individuals, each with a few acres or perhaps just a few rows of vines. Each vineyard is an Appellation Controlee, and each owner/ grower is, therefore, entitled to make an individual wine with the name of the vineyard on the label. Given this, there might be great variation in quality depending on the skill of the grower, and conceivably as many as 5 to 50 different wines of the same name and vintage could come from a single vineyard. Similarly the phrase Mis en bouteille au domaine, which means “bottled at the vineyard,” does not guarantee quality or consistency. This is so because there is no uniformity among growers’ products even when they are bottled at the vineyard. For this reason, it has become the practice for Burgundy shippers to buy wines from several growers in a vineyard and make a wine carrying the vineyard label on which they stake their own reputation.

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What a shipper’s wine offers is consistency, but often at the expense of individual vineyard character. Many shippers make wines that tend to taste almost like each other, in the shipper’s “house style,” regardless of the commune from which the grapes come. As a result shippers play a valuable role in providing readily available, fairly predictable, decent wine—just not the very best. The best Burgundies come from individual growers and are made in miniscule quantities, and knowing one’s way around among them is one of the most challenging tasks that any wine expert can face. The district of Beaujolais is also part of the Burgundy region, but it produces a very different wine from the classical Burgundy. The wine called Beaujolais, made from the Gamay grape, is a fresh, light red with a short life span of two to three years. It, too, is shipped in the Burgundy-shaped bottle shown in Figure 6.7b. Unlike most red wines it is often served at a cool cellar temperature. The best Beaujolais is identified on its label as Cru Beaujolais, along with the appellation of the commune it comes from. Next in rank is the Appellation Beaujolais-Villages. The arrival of Nouveau Beaujolais (or Beaujolais Noveau) in the United States on the third Thursday of every November is one of wine’s charming celebratory traditions. The young wine, barely two months old, is the first wine of the new harvest; it is meant to be uncorked and consumed immediately. Always served chilled, it is grapey, refreshing, and fun. It has a very short life span of only about four months. Although Burgundy is probably best known for its red wines, the whites, made from the Chardonnay grape, can be magnificent. They are among the best white wines in the world. One of the reasons Chardonnay has become so desirable all over the world is the success of the Burgundian prototype. The term white Burgundy encompasses several rather different wines, even though all are made from Chardonnay grapes. The vineyard of Montrachet and its neighbors are one group, Macon wines are another, and Chablis wines are a third. Montrachet is a small vineyard that produces a white wine of great prestige and excellence. The vineyard is so famous that its neighbors have hyphenated its name to theirs. Other well-known white Burgundies from this region are Meursault and Corton-Charlemagne. It is said that Charlemagne himself planted this latter vineyard. As with the red Burgundies, there are many small growers in these vineyards, and a reliable producer/shipper rather than estate bottling is often the key to quality. Of the white wines of the Macon region, the best known in the United States is Pouilly-Fuissé (POO-ee fweh-SAY). Other Macon wines with a district or village appellation are also imported and are often better values. Chablis is a Burgundy region that produces an entirely different white wine from the others, although it is made from the same Chardonnay grape. In fact it is seldom called a white Burgundy; it is simply called Chablis. It is pale, greenish, light, and very dry, with a taste described as “flinty”; it is most definitely different from the typical, sweet American “chablis.” There are several classifications: Grand Cru, Premier Cru, and Chablis, in descending order. Quality varies greatly from one vintage to another because of the weather. This cool northern climate does not often give the grapes a chance to ripen fully, resulting in a light, crisp personality in the wines. Red wines from the Cotes du Rhone district in the Rhone Valley have recently become very interesting to Americans, especially that adventurous group who likes to try something new and different. These wines are far from “new.” The best known

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Chateauneuf-du-Pape vineyard is said to have been planted in the fourteenth century by Pope Clement V, the first of the French popes who moved the papacy temporarily from Rome to Avignon; hence the name, which means “Chateau of the Pope.” These wines are different in several ways, however. They are made from blends of many different, mostly unfamiliar grapes; a single bottle of Chateauneuf-du-Pape may contain as many as 13 grape varieties. They are big, deep red, full-bodied, alcoholic wines that must be aged many years before they are ready to drink. They have a richness that derives from the grapes ripening in the long, hot growing season of southern France. Other fine Rhone reds, such as Hermitage and Côte Rotie, are similar in style and pedigree. The district is also the home of Tavel, a fresh, dry, but fruity rosé wine. Another group of white wines comes from the Loire Valley. The best known are Pouilly-Fumé (POO-ee fyoo-MAY), often confused with Pouilly-Fuissé but very different, as well as Sancerre and Vouvray. Both Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé come from the Sauvignon Blanc grape so popular in the United States today. Although this is also the grape of white Bordeaux, these Loire wines have a crisper, fruitier style. Vouvray (or Chenin Blanc) is made in several styles, from bone dry and fruity, to sweet, to sparkling. Rosé d’Anjou is also from the Loire Valley. One of the most popular rosés until the advent of White Zinfandel, it is made primarily from Gamay grapes. It has a charming pink color and a touch of sweetness. The Champagne district of France produces the sparkling white wine that bears its name. All French Champagnes are blends of wines from several vineyards and carry the name of the shipper/producer rather than that of a vineyard. They are made from both white and dark grapes unless they are labeled Blanc de Blancs, literally, “white from whites.” A French Champagne carries a vintage date only if it is from an exceptionally good year. A Champagne label indicates its degree of sweetness. The French terms might confuse the novice. They range from: 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲

Brut or Nature (the driest) Extra Sec (extra dry, which means that it contains a small amount of added sugar) Sec (dry, which actually indicates slight sweetness) Demi-Sec (semi-dry, which actually is quite sweet) Doux (very sweet; a seldom-made style, so this label designation is seldom used)

These French terms should appear on a wine-list entry, and servers should be familiar with them. Most of today’s Champagnes are Brut or Extra Dry. Nearly every Champagne house, besides making a nonvintage Champagne, also makes vintagedated Champagnes (in good years only) and a super-premium wine (or Tete du Cuvee, to use the French term) that is tremendously prestigious, not to mention expensive. Dom Perignon and Cristal are two of the best known. The wine region of Alsace lies across the Rhine from Germany and grows many of the same grape varietals. Because of the district’s cool climate most of the wines are white. Chief among the grapes are Riesling (full-bodied, fruity, and slightly sweet) and Gewurztraminer (spicy and full-flavored). Unlike the wines of the rest of France, most of the Alsatian wines are varietals. Alsace wines are big, firm, flavorful, and dry. They are unlike any other wines in the world, and they have a small but loyal following

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of fans. Because they are not especially stylish, they are also excellent values. You will find them in the distinctive tall, slender green bottle required by law (see Figure 6.7c). It is similar to the bottle shape used for German wines and looks more German than French.

Wines from Italy Italy vies with France as the world’s largest wine producer, and it exports more wine to the United States than France does. Most Italian wines come from native Italian grapes that are not grown anywhere else in the world, and they can be excellent values. Italy also makes plenty of wines from such well-known grapes as Chardonnay and Cabernet, and these wines are often varietal-labeled. The style and character of Italian wines vary tremendously from one region to another, depending on climate, grape variety, and local custom. It is really not a mystery why Italian wines are not as popular as French wines. Their names are difficult to pronounce, not as familiar to U.S. consumers, and there is no specific government program to help winemakers promote their exported products. Add to that the undeniable fact that Italian wine labels can be hard to read. Knowing three label designations might be helpful in determining overall quality: 䡲

Riserva means “reserve,” and in Italy it legally means that the winery has aged the wine longer than the standard minimums. It sometimes means the wine has a slightly greater alcohol content than nonreserve wines of the same type. Classico means the wine comes directly from a particular wine-producing region. If a wine is a Chianti Classico, for example, it comes straight from Chianti, not a neighboring area. Classico Superiore means both of the above: The wine is from the “classico” part of the region and it has a higher alcohol content.

Most of Italy’s quality wine production is governed by the DOC appellation system. This system recognizes and defines more than 200 types of Italian wine from specific geographic areas. However, unlike France’s appellation system, which actually classifies individual vineyards, DOC does not classify wines by quality. A high level of DOC status is DOCG; the “G” stands for garantita, which means guaranteed, because every wine must pass an official taste test before being sold. The DOCG system builds in incentives and risks that encourage producers to make high-quality wine. In 2007 there were only six DOCG wines: Barolo, Barbaresco, Chianti, Brunello di Montalcino, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, and Albana di Romagna, a white wine. Two years later, there were more than 30 DOCGs, showing the rapid trend toward higher-quality Italian wines. The DOC classifications took effect beginning in 1963; the DOCG system followed in 1992. A third designation, Indicazione Geografica Tipica (which means “Typical Geographical Indication”), was created in 1996 to account for wines that are typical to their region but not quite prestigious enough to fit into the DOC and DOCG categories. Wines that meet IGT standards for five years are able to move up to the DOC category.

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Some of Italy’s best wines, however, exist outside the DOC framework, often because their producers have chosen not to participate in the system. They are technically merely vini da tavola, “table wines,” but their high prices are clues that these are serious wines, and not to be taken lightly. Of the many wine regions in Italy, three are of particular importance to American restaurateurs. Piedmont and Veneto in northern Italy, and Tuscany farther south. In northwest Italy Piedmont borders on France and produces two of Italy’s greatest reds, Barolo and Barbaresco. These wines come from the native Nebbiolo grape. They are big, robust reds of great distinction, Barbaresco being somewhat more delicate than Barolo. In this part of Italy it is common to label wines with individual vineyard names in addition to the name of the wine itself. Piedmont is also home to Asti Spumante, a delicious, sparkling white wine made by the Charmat (bulk) method from Muscat (Moscato ) grapes. It captures the fruity freshness of the grapes and is sweet, making it more appropriate with dessert than other sparkling wines. In northeastern Italy, Veneto is famous for the trio of wines from Verona: Soave, a white; Bardolino, a light red; and Valpolicella, a medium-bodied red. They are all made from blends of local native Italian grapes. Along with its two neighboring regions, Friuli and Trentino, Veneto also makes many varietally labeled Cabernets and Chardonnays. Because the weather is relatively cool and Italians prefer their wines slightly on the acidic side to accompany food better, these wines will usually be lighter than their counterparts from other parts of the world. Pinot Grigio is a popular white wine from these areas. Tuscany is Italy’s other great red-wine region. It is the home of Chianti, a DOCG wine that has been improving its quality and image since the mid-1970s. Chianti is a blend of four grapes, predominantly Sangiovese, a native grape grown throughout central Italy. Once known as a rough young wine in a cute, straw-covered bottle, it is now taken more seriously in the wine community and is aged in a Bordeaux-shaped bottle. Chianti Riserva, for example, is aged at least three years. The best Chianti is from the Chianti Classico district, often identified by a black rooster on the neck of the bottle. Another DOCG wine from Tuscany is the red Brunello di Montalcino, made from a type of Sangiovese called Brunello or Sangivoese Grosso. It is considered Italy’s most expensive red. Many producers in Tuscany are now making premium-quality reds and whites that are not DOC, in the manner mentioned earlier. These wines are often made with Cabernet and Chardonnay, using the most sophisticated winemaking techniques. As a result they are richer and fuller than the Cabernets and Chardonnays from the northeast, and considerably more expensive. You will often find enough information for two labels on an imported wine. Of the wines made in other Italian wine districts, Orvieto, Verdicchio, and Frascati (all made from native grape varieties) are popular in the United States. All three are light, crisp whites. There are also good white varietals made from Verdicchio, Pinot Bianco (Pinot Blanc), and Pinot Grigio grapes. A varietal of a different sort is Lambrusco, which is easy to drink and reminiscent of sparkling grape juice.

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Wines from Spain Spain has its own wine appellation system, with more than 50 Denominacion de Origen (DOs). Wineries in Spain are called bodegas (bo-DAY-guss), so you will see that word as part of the name on some labels (see Figure 6.8). Several other label designations indicate clues about the quality of a Spanish wine, and they are based on the amount of time the wine is aged: 䡲 䡲

䡲 䡲

An ordinary table wine that has not been aged may have no designation at all. Wines that are described as Tinto (TEEN-toh) or Jovan (ho-VON) have not been aged in wood. Crianza (kree-ON-zah) wines have been aged a minimum of 18 months, in any combination of barrel or cask and bottle. Riserva wines are of slightly better quality, aged a minimum of 3 years. The best quality wines are labeled Gran Riserva. They must be aged at least 5 years before being released for sale, and 3 of those years must be in oak. Gran Reservas are selected in only exceptional grape-growing years.

A caveat: The new breed of Spanish winemakers, known as expressionists, feels strongly that wine doesn’t always need such a long time “on oak” to be considered great. They proudly market their own unoaked or lightly oaked products as Tintos or Crianzas, and are making some exceptional wines. The world market is taking notice, although less than 3 percent of Spain’s exported wines come to the United States. Instead Spain’s biggest customers are other EU members. The most famous red Spanish wine is Rioja (ree-OH-hah), a smooth and elegant wine, most often a blend of the Tempranillo and Grenache grapes, which are called Garnacha in Spain. With flavors reminiscent of Cabernet and Pinot Noir, Tempranillo has become popular enough with wine aficionados that some Spanish wineries also now bottle 100-percent Tempranillo. Although prices have been on the rise Rioja continues to deliver exceptional quality for a low price. There is also white Rioja. From the same grapes Ribera del Duero (rih-BEAR-ah dell DWAIR-oh) is similar to Rioja, but “bigger” and more intensely flavored. The Tempranillo is sometimes blended with Cabernet Sauvignon grapes for this hearty wine. The Penedes region near Barcelona is becoming increasingly important as a source of red and white table wines, sometimes made from world-class grapes, such as Cabernet and Chardonnay. Its Methode Champenoise sparkling wines, called Cava (KAH-vuh), are extremely good values. The names Codorniu and Freixenet are found on many a moderately priced American wine list. In the Navarra region (where people run with the bulls at Pamplona) there are some excellent varietals made, as well as a rosé wine known as Rosado. Navarra has large Basque and French influences and consequently, specializes in Cabernet and Merlot along with its Spanish varietals. Many of the wines from Navarra are made in a French Bordelais style. Spain is the original home of sherry, a fortified wine made for centuries in the Jerez district using time-honored methods and strict controls that yield a connoisseur’s

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product. Its style ranges from crisp and lean to rich and sweet, depending on production methods. It is one of the world’s top aperitif wines. By law, only three grape varietals may be used in making sherries. The palomino grape makes up the bulk of the bottle, with moscatel and/or Pedro Ximenez, a sweet grape grown in southern Spain and Argentina, sometimes added to impart sweetness and color. Sherries are fermented dry and put into barrels, where they form a natural yeast called flor that is native to this area and helps give the wine its unique complexity. (In the barrels, they also grow slow-forming sediment known as madre that is believed to contribute to the smoothness of the wine.) The various barrels are arranged in what is called a solera system: The rows, or tiers, at the bottom contain the oldest vintages, and the ones at the top contain the youngest. As the winemaker draws wine from the bottom barrels, they are refilled from the next row up, and so on, ensuring a consistent style and flavor over years of time, as well as continually replenishing the flor. A solera may have as few as 5 tiers or as many as 14 and can contain wines aged 30 to 50 years. There are several categories of Spanish sherry: 䡲

Fino: Pale, dry, and delicate, with an alcohol content of about 15 percent. Fino may have been barrel-aged for as few as 3 years or as many as 10. Manzanilla: The driest and most delicate of all the finos is site-specific. The soleras must be located in the small region of Sanlucar de Barrameda, a unique microclimate next to the sea that imparts a unique, salty character and more finesse than other finos. Amontillado: Fuller-flavored and darker in color than the finos. It is aged only 2 to 5 years and contains more alcohol, 16 to 18 percent. Olorosso: Fortified by adding grape spirits that stop the flor from forming and raise the alcohol content, which can be as high as 20 percent. These wines are not sweet, but they are rich in flavor and dark in color. Palo Cortado: A sherry that began as a fino but lost its flor quickly. Alcohol content is 18 to 21 percent. Cream sherry: Most cream sherries are made from aged Olorosso and blended with sun-dried Pedro Ximenez sherry to form a medium-sweet Amontillado; the sweetest cream sherry is called Olorosso Abocado. These can be some of the most complex sherries, despite their reputation as overwhelmingly sweet. Some are bottled younger and are paler, lighter in color and flavor and not so cloying.

Sherries will last longer after being opened than ordinary table wines because of their higher alcohol content and the fact that they are already partially oxidized, having been aged in the solera system. They can remain open (recorked for storage, of course) for many days, even showing greater complexity—at least, to a point.

Wines from the United States In 2009, the federal government formed the country’s largest official wine-producing region—and it is nowhere near California. The newest American Viticulture Area (AVA) is the Upper Mississippi River Valley, encompassing four states (Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin) and almost 30,000 square miles. There are only about 50 wineries in the region, however, and less than 400 acres of vineyards.

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We’re not suggesting that Iowa will never be a winemaking powerhouse. It’s just that, in comparison, California contains almost half of the bonded wineries in the United States, with vineyards that cover more than a half-million areas in 46 of its 58 counties. The state produces about 90 percent of the nation’s grape harvest; rounding out the “top five” are Washington and New York (30,000 acres each), Oregon (14,000 acres), and Texas (over 5,000 acres). The California wine country can be divided roughly into five geographic regions, and further into 12 Appellations of Origin, which are divided into 93 smaller American Viticultural Areas (AVAs). Dozens of books already have been written about winemaking in California, so the following list can be considered a very brief summary. 䡲

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North Coast: The prestigious Napa Valley is located here, where an acre of vineyard land can sell for as much as $350,000. Located north of San Francisco, Napa doesn’t produce large quantities of wine, only about 3 percent of California’s total, but most is top quality. It contains a dozen subappellations with diverse climates. Sonoma County is twice as large as Napa Valley. The North Coast AVAs are strongly identified with cultivation of certain grapes: Russian River with Chardonnay and Pinot Noir; Alexander Valley with Cabernet and singlevineyard Chardonnays; the Dry Creek area with Zinfandel. Mendocino and Lake Counties are the farthest north appellations of the North Coast, with plentiful Chardonnay, Riesling, Gewurztraminer, and Pinot Noir plantings. Central Coast: This enormous region is its own AVA. It lies between San Francisco and Santa Barbara and produces about 15 percent of the state’s wine grapes. Monterey, home of the famous Monterey Wine Festival, is here, as is the Paso Robles AVA. Investors in the Monterey area risked millions of dollars in early attempts to compete with Napa and Sonoma before settling on the white grapes that grow best in the region: Chardonnay, Gewurztraminer, and Riesling. More than 40 percent of the vineyards are Chardonnay. Today, this region is home to more than 350 wineries. The counties of San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara are included in the southernmost portion of the area, where the first California winemakers planted vines in the early 1800s. Central Valley: This inland area stretches 450 miles in length, with the Sacramento Valley to the north and the San Joaquin Valley to the south. Its 18 counties supply about one-fourth of the United States food supply. The San Joaquin Valley produces 70 percent of all California wines with table grapes for inexpensive wines. Located between two mountain ranges, the Central Valley’s relative isolation spared the area from the early ravages of phylloxera, so today it contains some of the oldest vines in the state. The towns of Modesto and Fresno are located in the Central Valley; winemakers around the town of Lodi are raising the bar by creating some premium wines. Sierra Foothills: About 100 wineries are producing in the area between Sacramento (to the west) and Lake Tahoe (to the east) in Amador, Calaveras, and Eldorado counties. Most wineries are smaller, family-owned properties. At elevations of 1,500 to 3,000 feet above sea level, the soil is granite and/or volcanic material, and typically the vineyards are not irrigated. This puts stress on the vines

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and creates excellent conditions for the “big reds” for which this area is known: Cabernet, Syrah, and Zinfandel. Southern Coast: The area between Los Angeles and San Diego includes five AVAs that cover 267,500 acres in Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, and San Diego counties. The region contains fewer than 50 wineries and is known primarily for a mix of offbeat varietals, such as Cabernet Franc, Cinsault, Primitivo, Montepulciano, and Sangiovese. The largest grape-growing areas are Temecula and the Cucamonga Valley, but the turn of the new century saw a major setback to the wine industry here with an infestation of Pierce’s Disease, a bacterium (Xylella fastidiosa) spread by a large, leaf-eating insect known as the glassy-winged sharpshooter (GWSS). It chokes vines by preventing them from absorbing water and soil nutrients. Today, the Southern Coast wine industry is still recovering from this infestation, which killed at least 40 percent of the Temecula Valley vines.

New York’s 250 wineries and 1,400 vineyards produce about 2 million bottles per year. Of the five AVAs, the largest in terms of size and output is the Lake Erie region of Western New York. However, as the home of the National Grape Cooperative (better known as Welch’s), most of the Lake Erie grapes are used for making grape juice instead of wine. The largest wine-producing region is Finger Lakes, which accounts for one-third of the grape-growing but 85 percent of the wine bottled in New York State. Classic white grape varieties do well here, such as Chardonnay, Riesling, and Gewurztraminer. New York’s role as a wine industry leader is partly because of its influence as a distribution center. About 10 percent of all licensed importers ship their wines to New York City on their way to other U.S. destinations, and almost every food and wine publication has an office here, too. In 2007, the state government appointed a 15-member Wine Grape Task Force to make recommendations about how to grow the in-state winemaking business, which also has become a major tourist attraction. The suggestions included changes to state law that would treat the wineries more like agricultural businesses and less like an alcoholic beverage producers, and more state support for business development, training, and marketing. In 2009, Cornell University opened a Teaching Winery in Ithaca, the first in the eastern U.S., as part of its College of Agriculture and Life Sciences to support the newest undergraduate major at the school, Viticulture and Enology. The $900,000 facility contains state-of-theart laboratory and fermentation equipment. In the Pacific Northwest, the state of Washington has long been known for its fruit crops of apples, pears, and cherries, so it seems only natural that grapes would be an additional economic boon. The state is located on the same latitude as the Bordeaux and Burgundy regions of France, and about 600 wineries are making the most of this fortunate fact. Today Washington harvests 127,000 tons of grapes annually, volume that is second only to California in the United States. New AVAs are always being proposed and considered so the numbers may have changed by the time you read this, but Washington has 10 AVAs with several more being proposed. Most are in the warm, dry climates of central and eastern Washington. These areas receive more sunlight than their California counterparts, by as much as two hours at some times of the year, making conditions ideal for grape-growing. The state has been recognized for its Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot,

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CALIFORNIA LEADS “GREEN” WINEMAKING TREND Sustainable winegrowing is defined as environmentally friendly, socially equitable and economically feasible. It is a comprehensive program to protect the environment, encompassing hundreds of best management practices in the winery, vineyard and with neighbors. Specific practices include activities such as recycling, conserving energy and water, protecting air and water quality, reducing pesticide use, composting, and using cover crops to build soil health and attract beneficial insects. It means maintaining surrounding ecosystems to preserve biological diversity and wildlife habitat. Sustainability assures the wellbeing of employees and encourages more communication with neighbors. CSWA board members and key stakeholders are currently discussing the development of third-party review of participation in the Code of Sustainable Winegrowing. Nearly all California wineries currently practice some level of sustainability and the Code of Sustainable Winegrowing program, the first of its kind, differentiates their wines as representative of these outstanding leadership efforts as environmentalists. See www .sustainablewinegrowing.org for the California wine community’s Sustainability Report, which documents the adoption and progress of this major statewide initiative. Organic wine and winegrapes. California has nearly 8,000 wine type acres that are certified organic, and much of the fruit is used by wineries that label their wines “organic” or “made with organically grown grapes.”

Both are made with grapes grown without synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, or fungicides for a period of at least three years with third-party inspection. The key difference between the two is that wines labeled “organic” do not have added sulfites to sustain prolonged shelf life and must have laboratory certification that the wine contains 10 parts per million or less sulfites. Labels for “Organic” and “made with organically grown grapes” are approved both by the U.S. Tax and Trade Bureau and FDA’s National Organic Program. Biodynamic wine. About two dozen California wineries practice biodynamic agriculture. The methods are based on principles developed by Austrian philosopher Rudolf Steiner in the 1920s. Biodynamic agriculture is a holistic system whereby soil is nurtured through natural remedies, and planting, harvesting, and bottling take place according to the positions of the planets and lunar phases. Natural animal and vegetable matter is applied to soil to strengthen it, and various homeopathic herbal and mineral preparations are added to help the soil maximize light and heat for photosynthesis. The U.S. Tax and Trade Bureau is allowing the biodynamic term, appearing on back labels to date, provided the winery provides third-party certification of its biodynamic winemaking practices. Source: The Wine Institute, San Francisco, California.

Chardonnay, and Sauvignon Blanc production, although at least 30 grape varieties are being cultivated. The largest Washington AVAs are the Columbia Valley (along the Columbia River, which borders Oregon to the south), and the Yakima Valley (in the South Central portion of the state). Neighboring Oregon shares three AVAs with Washington (Columbia Gorge, Columbia Valley, and Walla Walla Valley) and one with Idaho (Snake River Valley).

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The largest Oregon appellation, Willamette Valley, is also the home to the largest number of wineries in the state and has been subdivided into numerous, smaller microclimates to more accurately label the wines from each unique area. When it comes to winemaking, the state’s soil and climate have been favorably compared to the Rhone, Alsace, and Bordeaux regions of France. Oregon has had enormous success growing the temperamental Pinot Noir grape because its valleys are cooler than those of California. Pinot Noir is the leading varietal grown in Oregon, followed by Pinot Gris, Chardonnay, and Riesling. Merlot rounds out the top five. The state’s 400 wineries grow 15,600 acres of grapes. Oregon law requires that in order for a wine to be named after its grape varietal, 90 percent of the wine must be made from that particular grape. The sole exception is Cabernet Sauvignon, which must be at least 75 percent Cabernet. Numerous other states have made very creditable wines, including Ohio (home of the second-largest AVA, the 26,000-square-mile Ohio River Valley), Vermont, Virginia, Idaho, and Texas. These wines are generally in small production, however, and seldom become well known enough to land themselves on restaurant wine lists, except in their own home state or region.

Wines from Argentina Argentina has long been known for its value-priced red-wine products, but when it comes to the successful exportation of wine, Chile started before Argentina. Argentine winemakers mobilized when they saw how well other South American exporters were doing. Half of the country’s grape acreage has consisted of two lightred grapes, Criolla Grande and Cereza, used primarily for making inexpensive rosés that are not typically exported. In recent years, however, up to one-third of the existing vineyards have been replanted in a bid to craft and market better-quality varietals. The country has an equally ambitious strategic plan for its wine exports, aiming to grow from a 2 percent international market share to 10 percent by the year 2020. In 2007, Argentina exported almost 24 million cases, an increase of 14 percent in volume and 28 percent in value. Argentina’s top customers are, in order of volume: Paraguay, the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, and Brazil. The fact that Argentine land prices are relatively low has spurred foreign investment in its vineyards. The country also has some unique grape varietals: Malbec is the primary grape in top-quality reds, and Torrontes produces a sweet, aromatic white wine. Chardonnay, Ugni Blanc, Cabernet, and Tempranillo are also grown. The largest and best-known grape-growing area of Argentina is Mendoza, which borders Chile. Vineyards are planted straight up mountainsides, thousands of feet above sea level.

Wines from Portugal Portugal is famous for its fortified wines, a sophisticated, after-dinner treat. The country may not produce as much as others, but it exports more wine than either Argentina or South Africa, and as much wine as Germany.

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The port makers, called port houses, harvest grapes annually, but declare their products vintage port only in years that they consider the best for long-term aging of the wine. The finest-quality vintage ports are stored in oak for up to two years, then bottled and aged for a decade or more before being sold. The year 2000 was declared a Vintage Port Year. Another option for a top-quality wine is a Single Quinta Port. The designation Quinta on a wine label means “vineyard,” the same as a chateau or domain in France. In nonvintage years, bottling fruit from a single vineyard makes it a bit more exclusive, so single quinta ports can be excellent buys, both in quality and value. For years the only non-port wines to cross the ocean for sale in the United States were a few brand-name rosés, pleasant but undistinguished. More recently this has changed, and you will find some great values for by-the-glass pouring. You may see Touriga Nacional on Portugese wine labels, which is the name of a red grape native to the country. The table wines from the Minho region, labeled Vinho Verde whether they are red or white, are particular bargains. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the name literally means “green wine,” but it refers to the fact that these wines should be enjoyed young and are not meant to be aged. Portugal has its own appellation system, called Indicacao da Proveniencia Regulamentada (IPR; which means “Indication of Regulated Provenance,” with four classifications that apply to all wines except Port: 䡲 䡲

Vinho de Mesa: Ordinary or table wine. Vinho Regional (VR): At least 85 percent of the grapes used to make this wine are of the same varietal and harvested in the same year from the same region. Vinho de Qualidade Produzi en Regiao Detterminada (VQPRD): An intermediate classification, indicating a fine wine that is “just beneath” the top level. Denominacao de Origem Controlada (DOC): The top classification for Portuguese wines, indicated by a printed seal across the bottleneck (much like a strip stamp).

Portugal also classifies its winemaking regions much like the rest of Europe. The top wine-producing regions are the Douro (named for the Douro River, which in neighboring Spain is called the Duero), the Dao of Central Portugal (known for its reds), and the Minho (the largest region, known for white wines). The newest wine region, called both Setubal and Terras de Sado, has led the way in modernization of the wine industry. More than 30 varietals are grown there.

Wines from Germany About two-thirds of the grapes grown in Germany for winemaking are white because they flourish in the cool climate. Although recent years have seen an increase in plantings of red grapes, whites, such as Riesling and Silvaner, form the backbone of Germany’s production, along with Müller-Thurgau, a hybrid of the two that the Germans developed to suit their climate. All of the great wines derive from the noble Riesling, however. The prototype German wine for many years was a fruity but acidic white, light in body and low in alcohol (about 9 to 10 percent), which combined a pleasant sweetness

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with a naturally high level of crispness. Today, there is a movement in Germany toward dry and somewhat dry wines. (On the label, trocken means dry; halb-trocken means off-dry.) These have been slow to make headway in the U.S. market, where we still expect German wines to be at least slightly sweet; however, the United States is still Germany’s second-largest export market. German wines also share some of the same problems as Italian wines on U.S. supermarket shelves—their names and labels can be challenging to read. In their own country, however, Germans are loyal to their native wines. The German Wine Institute says in 2008, overall wine sales increased 2.2 percent within Germany, while German wine sales “at home” grew 7.4 percent. This is one area of the world in which climate and geography can combine to affect wines greatly, both in quantity and quality. Germany’s range extends from ordinary, inexpensive wines to some of the greatest white wines in the world. There are three basic categories in the country’s rigorous system of quality classification and control: 䡲

Tafelwein (table wine): the most ordinary wine. Sugar is added to these wines for fermentation to make up for inadequate ripeness of the grapes. It is seldom exported. Qualitatswein (QbA): translated as “Quality wine from a designated region.” This may mean a single vineyard, a group of vineyards, or a group of villages. These wines also have had sugar added for fermentation. Qualitatswein mit Pradikat (QmP): translated as “Quality wine with special attributes.” The major attribute is the ripeness of the grape.

In addition, there are five subcategories, called pradikats. These were hotly debated among German winemakers, who correctly asserted that the ripeness of the grape at the time they are picked is not an automatic indication of quality—that what the winemaker does with the grapes ultimately determines the quality of the wine. Some of the top German winemakers who had been fermenting drier, more elegant wines disagreed with the pradikat system and refused to include it on their labels. So, in 2006, a new designation was added for wines that are dry in style. It is Grosse Gewachse (“great growth”), symbolized on the label by the initials GG. The five pradikats are listed in ascending order according to the natural sugar level of the grapes at harvest: 䡲

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Kabinett: This light, fruity wine is made from grapes ripened in the ordinary manner but sweet enough to ferment without adding sugar. Spatlese: This wine is made from fully ripened grapes late-picked after the official harvest date. Auslese: This wine is made from particularly ripe grapes picked selectively in bunches at any time during the harvest. Auslese wines can be very sweet (dessert-style) or only somewhat sweet. Beerenauslese: This rich, top-quality wine is made from perfectly ripened grapes chosen one by one. Trockenbeerenauslese: This wine is the German equivalent of French Sauternes, made from individually selected overripe grapes that have shriveled with the “noble rot” that, as you have learned, the Germans call Edelfaule. The term trocken (dry) refers to the fact that the grapes have dried, not that the wine is dry.

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A special category of wine is eiswein, a very rare and expensive wine made from grapes that have actually been allowed to freeze on the vine, concentrating their sweetness and richness. There are 11 wine regions in Germany, all of them surrounding rivers that moderate the climate. Several regions are named for the Rhine River: Rheingau, Rheinhessen, and Rheinpfalz. The most famous is the Rheingau, Germany’s smallest region, which abounds with top vineyards. Its wines are riper and fuller than Mosels, yet steely and firm. Among the famous vineyards here are Schloss Johannisberger and Schloss Vollrads. Together the wines from the Rhine and Mosel Valleys account for most U.S. imports of German wines. You can tell them apart at a glance by the color of the bottle: brown for Rhine and green for Mosel. Both bottles have a typical tall tapered shape, like a stretched-out Burgundy bottle, seen in Figure 6.7c. A green Bocksbeutel (Figure 6.7d) is used for wines from the Franken region.

Wines from Australia Australia seems to have sprung up somewhat suddenly as a winemaking giant, with shelf after shelf of bargain-priced products in U.S. supermarkets, so it is interesting to note that the country’s total wine output does not rival the Gallo empire in the United States. About one-third of Aussie imports come to the United States, however. Australia also sells more wine to the United Kingdom than any other nation. For the most part this was the work of Southcorp, a single conglomerate that owned the largest and best-known Australian wineries. In 2005, however, the Australianowned Foster Group acquired Southcorp for just over $3 billion, which means a beer company now also owns the lion’s share of the Australian wine industry. Their wine products include Lindemans, Penfolds, Rosemount Estates, Seppelt, and Wynns. In a business update in February 2009, Fosters said it planned to “retain and reshape” its wine business, because it “is not an appropriate time to sell or demerge.” The flood of Australian wines into the United States is expected to continue, especially since export tariffs are being eliminated over an 11-year period that began in 2005. The seven major wine-producing regions in Australia are further divided into subregions, for a total of 50 areas where wine is made. All except one of the major regions (Margaret River, in Southwest Australia) are located in the southeastern portion of the country. Harvest time here is opposite that of the United States, from February to April. For an Australian wine to be labeled a particular varietal, area, or vintage year, it must contain at least 85 percent of that grape type, from that specific area or year. If the wine is a blend, the names of each grape used must be listed on the label in descending order based on volume. Australia’s Label Integrity Programme (LIP) does not permit the use of generic labels. The oldest winemaking region in Australia is the Hunter Valley, where commercial production began in the early 1800s. It is known for excellent Chardonnay, Semillon, and Shiraz. An unusual name seen on some Australian labels, Coonawarra, probably deserves an explanation. Only a mile wide and nine miles long, it is among the world’s smallest wine-producing regions. Known for its fruit orchards in the past,

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Coonawarra’s vineyards are planted in a deep layer of dark red clay that the locals call Terra Rossa, which stresses the grapevines and results in the production of low-yield but highly concentrated fruit, both red and white grapes. The region is getting a reputation as the “Bordeaux of Australia,” and there is an ongoing effort to restrict the use of the Coonawarra name to only those wines produced from grapevines planted in the famous red soil.

Wines from South Africa In the past some people would not stock or purchase South African wines—no matter how good—because of the repressive political climate of apartheid. A United Nations embargo on all commerce was lifted in 1994, and since then the nation is slowly emerging from that stigma and its wines are once again gaining popularity. In 2008, its wine exports rose 32 percent (in terms of volume) and 47 percent (in dollar value), to 45 million cases. South Africa’s biggest wine customers are the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Germany. The United States receives less than 3 percent of South African wine exports, but that is twice as much as in past years. Under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), the incoming wines pay no duty, which helps keep prices low for consumers. Instead of small, individual wineries, most of the grapes are grown by large cooperatives located in the southwest part of the country, near Cape Town. Red wines from South Africa include Cabernet, Syrah or Shiraz, and Pinotage (PEE-no-TAJH), the latter from a grape that is native to the area. It was created in the 1920s by a university professor who crossed Pinot Noir with another red grape, Cinsault (sin-SO), which thrives in hot weather and is known for its spicy characteristic. Wines that are labeled Cape blends have Pinotage as an integral component. South African white wines made from Chenin Blanc may be labeled Steen, which is what the grape is called there. The country is also known for its dessert wines. Prime winemaking regions include Stellenbosch, known as the “Napa Valley of the Cape,” and Paarl, the largest wine district, which is known for distinctive sherries and Port-style wines.

Wines from Chile Chile’s biggest export customer is the United States, and the country is courting its export customers in a big way. In 2009, the trade group Wines from Chile opened offices in New York City and London. The same organization says Chilean wine sales in the United States were up 18 percent in 2008, and believes as Americans learn more about Chile in general, they will purchase more of its wines. Unfortunately, the wine news from Chile in 2010 was not good. A powerful earthquake early in March was estimated to have destroyed 14 million cases of wine, valued at approximately $250 million. It represents about 12 percent of the total 2009 harvest although, for some wineries, losses range from 20 to 40 percent of their inventory. For the most part, Chile grows the same varietals as the United States, including Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot. Chile also has a

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beautiful blending grape, Carmenere, a rare varietal that was probably transplanted from Bordeaux. Carmenere is one of the reds newly “discovered” by American consumers, with 2008 sales up 91 percent. Great Britain is another big fan of Chilean wines and its fastest-growing export market. Some excellent and extremely low-priced varietals are Chilean. The wineries were so busy in the 1990s ripping out unproductive vines and planting new, more marketable grape varieties that there was concern about a lack of processing or storage facilities to handle the increased volume. Foreign investors have taken notice and are making deals. Concha y Toro, one of the largest and best-known Chilean wine corporations, teamed up with France’s famous Bordeaux producer Mouton Rothschild under the label Almaviva. More recently, Seattle’s trendy Click Wine Group (acquired by New Jersey-based Winebow in 2008) partnered with Vina Ventisquero to produce and market Root:1 wines. In 2009, Matura Wine Intelligence, an international consulting firm that specializes in wine marketing, opened an office in Chile. The beverage giant Diageo also sponsors a four-month bartenders’ training program for young Chileans through INACAP, the country’s technical university.

Wines from Brazil There are more than 1,000 wineries in Brazil and yet, the nation has only recently gained international attention as a wine exporter. (Our theory, completely unscientific, is that wines have been at least temporarily upstaged by the runaway popularity of cachaça.) However, Brazil’s export agency (called Apex) and the Brazilian Wine Institute have teamed up to help wineries market their products to other countries with the goal of raising exports by 30 percent per year. Some of the names you’re likely to see on U.S. store shelves are Casa Valduga, Casa Miolo, Dal Pizzol, Don Laurindo, and Pizzato. It should not surprise anyone that Brazil is a winemaking country, as parts of it were settled by Italian families who brought their grapevines and techniques from Europe in the 1800s. Today, more than half the grapes in Brazil are grown in the Rio Grande del Sul, an area that borders Argentina and Uruguay and contains the Serra Gaúcha region, where about 90 percent of the country’s wine is made. The first area to receive a government Geographical Indication, much like an AVA in the United States, is Vale dos Vinhedos, which is located in Serra Gaúcha and maintains its sense of Italian ancestry with pride. Another unique area is Bahia in northeastern Brazil, where the tropical climate allows for two grape harvests per year. Varietals include Cabernet, Merlot, and Chardonnay, and the country is known for sparkling wine production.

Wines from China In June 2009, the Chinese Ministry of Commerce held a tradeshow called TOPWINE CHINA in Shanghai. The theme, announced in news releases at the time, was: “Promote fine wines, lead fashion life, develop premium wine market in China.” Perhaps that says it all.

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The country has been growing grapes for 6,000 years and making wine for 2,000 years. Until recently, however, Chinese producers could not have been more different than their Western counterparts. Dr. Stephen Reiss, Certified Wine Educator and a member of the first U.S. Wine Delegation to visit China in 1996, has described several factors that account for the inevitable culture clash—and we’ve added our own observations to the list: 䡲

Wine in China is a small part of a much larger industry in which alcohol is produced not only as beverages but as medicines—and the more potent the spirit, the more useful and popular it has traditionally been. Therefore, higher-alcohol wines such as brandy are seen as a better value and are in much greater demand than table wines. The most successful producers to date have been French Cognac makers who have formed alliances to open Chinese facilities. As in Japan (see the earlier section, “Sake and Shochu”), most of the alcohol produced in China is made from rice and grains, not grapes. The Chinese drink far more beer than they do wine. In 2004, an independent market monitoring company estimated the number of beer drinkers in China at 33 million. In comparison, about 8 million drink wine. Wine has an upscale appeal there; its Chinese fans are young, well-educated and well-paid city dwellers. In one market report, wine was described as “mostly drunk in luxurious hotels, bars and casinos.” In order to avoid weather and disease problems, many Chinese grape growers are overly cautious and harvest too early, which means a lot of sugar must be added to the wine to make it palatable. As a result, the focus has been on simple, sweet table wines rather than fine wines. Dry wine styles, both white and red, are growing in popularity, however. For years, the duties (taxes) for wines imported into China had been so high (65 percent) that they priced most foreign-made wines out of reach of average consumers, who are reluctant to pay $10 and up (in U.S. dollars) when Chinese wine retails for $2 to $4. All of the top 10 best-selling wines in the country are made in China. (Major brand names include Changyu, China Red, Dynasty, Great Wall, and Tonghua.) When the government dropped the import taxes to 14 percent in 2004, the publication China Daily warned domestic producers to “prepare to fight off their foreign rivals.” Gaining market share has proven to be tough for the few international companies that have tried it. Dr. Reiss calls the Chinese distribution system chaotic, citing a lack of both refrigerated storage and government support. Also, just as Americans might struggle to read and understand a Chinese wine label, Chinese consumers are unfamiliar with labels from other countries. A wine writer from Singapore, Ch’ng Poh Tiong, has developed a system of phonetic translation for the top French chateaux that can be used to help these prestigious wineries protect their brand names in Asian countries—names that have been, in some cases, commandeered by opportunistic importers trying to profit from the lack of knowledge by mislabeling and selling “counterfeit” table wines as more expensive ones. Who’d know the difference?

As you might imagine, the focus in China has been on bringing wines, legitimately, into this enormous potential market rather than getting the Chinese wines

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exported for greater international exposure. It’s not that they don’t want to export, but that they don’t really have to—90 percent of the wine consumed in China is made in China. Of course, that also means there is room for players from other nations. The challenges are formidable, but foreign winemakers have much to offer China, including more modern production techniques and expertise in brand development and marketing. The smart (and extremely patient) ones will attempt to forge partnerships with Chinese wineries, distributors, and retailers for what could be the adventure of a lifetime.

SUMMING UP Wine appreciation begins with tasting the product and learning to distinguish what flavors and winemaking styles you enjoy. There are no rights or wrongs when it comes to wine preferences. This chapter introduced the major grape varietals used around the world and to the winemaking process. Grapes are picked, crushed, and fermented. Yeast is added to the crushed grapes, and as it feeds on the sugar in the grapes, it creates alcohol and carbon dioxide. When fermentation stops, the wine is stored until it stabilizes and settles, then the storage process continues in stainless steel or oak casks, depending on the type of wine and the desired results. In sparkling wine or Champagne the carbon dioxide is captured in the wine bottle instead of being released into the air, making the wine naturally bubbly. The chapter also summarized an ongoing controversy about the use of natural-cork and synthetic bottle closures. No matter where wines are made, all wine labels identify the producer, the year in which the grapes were picked (the vintage), and the type of grapes used (the varietal). The percentage of alcohol must also be included on the label. However, a label can reveal only so much. You have to open the bottle and taste the wine, which is a topic covered in the following chapter. Wines are named for their grape varietal (Chardonnay or Sauvignon Blanc); given a generic name (such as Meritage or Table Wine) that signifies a blend of several different types of grapes; or labeled with the name of a prestigious producer (such as Opus One or Tinto Pesquera). In some countries, a wine’s place of origin is used on the label (such as Condrieu or Chateau Margaux); this might be a town or the winery name. The chapter ended with descriptions of the wine industries, primary growing regions, and most popular grape varietals in the many of the world’s top wineproducing countries. In the global economy, each is trying not only to outdo the others in terms of winemaking skills, but to capture percentages of other countries’ wine consumers hearts and pocketbooks. If you are interested in a particular state or country’s wines, it will be worth your time to follow its marketing efforts and see how successful they are in the coming years.

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POINTS TO PONDER 1. What are the four basic factors that go into making any type of wine? (Discussion questions: Which of these four factors do you think is the most important, and why? Which is the least important, and why?) 2. What does a wine’s vintage tell you? Is the vintage date related to the quality of the wine? If so, how? 3. What do the skins of the grape have to do with the final wine product? 4. How does Champagne production differ from still-wine production? 5. Why do winemakers sometimes blend different types of grapes? 6. Why is sake considered a wine if it is not made from grapes? 7. Several government-mandated wine quality designation systems are discussed in this chapter. Do you think they are necessary, or not? Explain your reasons. 8. Name three practices or characteristics that would make a winery or vineyard “sustainable.” 9. Where do you stand on the controversy about natural corks versus screwtops and synthetic closures? 10. Select two of the challenges discussed in the section on “Wines from China” and briefly describe how you would work to overcome them if you were part of that country’s wine industry.

TERMS OF THE TRADE 2, 4, 6 Trichloroanisole (TCA) Albariño American Viticultural Areas (AVAs) aperitif aromatized Barolo Beaujolais blush wine Bourdeaux Burgundy Cabernet Sauvignon capsule Chablis chapitalization Chardonnay Charmat bulk process Chenin Blanc Chianti claret

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classified growth cream sherry dessert wine fino first growths flor Fumé Blanc Gamay Beaujolais generic wine Gewurztraminer Grand Cru Graves Grenache Grosse Gewachse jug wine Lambrusco late harvest wine lees Malbec

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Marsanne Merlot Methode Champenoise monopole Mourvedre (or Monastrell) Müller-Thurgau Muscat Nebbiolo palomino Pierce’s disease Pinot Blanc Pinot Grigio Pinot Gris Pinot Noir Pouilly-Fuissé Pouilly-Fumé Premier Cru racking Riesling sake Sancerre

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Sangiovese Sauternes Sauvignon Blanc Sekt Semillon sherry Shiraz shochu (soju) solera Spumante still wine suberin oak sulfites sustainable winegrowing Syrah table wine tannins Tempranillo varietal vintage Viognier Zinfandel

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riting in the September 2008 issue of Food and Wine magazine, wine expert Robert M. Parker notes that, when he first published his journal Wine Enthusiast in 1978, there were no wines imported to the United States from Argentina, Australia, Chile, New Zealand, or South Africa, to name a few countries. The Italian or Spanish wines that made it into the American market were inexpensive jug wines. Even California didn’t have much of a fine wine presence. Over 30 years, he says, wines have gotten better. The achievements in enology, technology and the culinary world have resulted in radical changes in the ways people make, store, buy, sell, serve, and enjoy wines. He cites many examples, including the increased attention to sanitation and temperature control in winemaking and storage; the advent of “green” or organic viticulture, without the use of fertilizers and pesticides; and even the roles of wine writers and critics, feeding a constant flow of information available to the public. The end result, says Parker, is a worldwide boost in wine’s popularity—as well as a boost in prices for the world’s best wines. The market has created smarter consumers who are willing to pay more for quality and appreciate knowledgeable, enthusiastic service. For the bar or restaurant owner, a more complex and interesting wine world has also made it a greater challenge to sell and serve wine. There are so many more choices of wines to sell, and so much more to learn and impart to staff members. Such training works best when you approach it with an attitude of helping servers learn to truly appreciate the products they are selling. THIS CHAPTER WILL HELP YOU . . . 䡲 Learn how to taste a wine so that you can adequately assess its characteristics and describe them to customers. 䡲 Create a wine list by selecting and pricing the wines you want to sell. 䡲 Train your service staff to recommend and serve wines. 䡲 Increase your wine sales. 䡲 Open and store wine properly.

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ou’ve already learned that, while most people are not wine connoisseurs, they expect wine to taste good, to complement their food choices, and to be a good overall value. In addition, people are often willing to try something new rather than stick with those wines with which they are already familiar. They just may need a bit of information and encouragement to help them make their selection. Creating an interesting and profitable wine sales program always begins with understanding your designated clientele and market.

TASTING WINES Wine can be an extremely complex beverage. It fascinates some people and bewilders others. No matter what your level of wine understanding or appreciation, you can read only so much about the subject. The only way to truly learn more is to taste the stuff! Drinking wine and tasting wine are two distinctly different pursuits, and tasting comes first. Tasting can help you to understand your own preferences and why a good wine is good, which can give you pleasure and confidence. More important for the restaurateur or bar owner is what that confidence and understanding can do to increase business: It can enable you to buy the most suitable wines for your clientele, to develop a wine list, and most critical, to train your serving staff about the wines on your list so that they can describe and sell these wines to your customers. So let’s learn some wine-tasting basics. When you taste a wine, pour it into a thin, clear glass with a stem. Hold the glass by the foot or the stem, never by the bowl, which would convey the heat of your hand to the wine. Whenever you taste wines, use the same size glass and the same amount of wine so that you can make valid comparisons. Comparison tastings—tastings of the same varietal by different producers, or the same varietal from different years— are terrific ways to learn more about the subtle differences between wines. Tasting a wine really begins with appraising its appearance. Pour a small amount, then hold it up to the light or look at it against a white background, like a white tablecloth. The wine should be clear and bright. A wine that looks cloudy or hazy has a problem. Don’t buy it, and don’t serve it. Note that sediment in a bottle of aging wine is not a problem; this will settle out when the bottle is left to sit a while. Next, focus on the wine’s color. Color will tell you if the wine is light-, medium-, or full-bodied. Many white wines have a pale, straw color. Young whites, especially those from cooler climates, might have a tinge of green. Wines from warmer climates and sweet dessert wines are often a beautiful golden hue. White wines darken, turning brownish as they age, so any tinge of brown or amber might signal a problem. Red wines range from purple in a young wine, to reddish-brown in a mature wine. Too much rust or amber color is a warning signal that the wine may have been stored incorrectly or not sealed properly. Oxidation, which occurs when oxygen comes into contact with the wine, can cause this discoloration, a sign of spoilage. Rosé wines are pink to pale orange; too pink or too orange is not good, and again, any touch of amber is a warning.

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The next step is to smell the wine, and to do that most effectively, you must learn to swirl it around inside the wineglass. The best way for a novice to manage this is to keep the glass on the table, hold the bottom of the stem between your fingers, and move the base of the glass around in a small, clockwise circle, which will cause the wine inside the bowl to move in a circular manner, too. You do not have to swirl too hard to get the wine moving around. When you are confident doing this with the glass still sitting on the table, you can pick up the glass and try swirling it. Why swirl? Swirling allows some of the alcohol in the wine to vaporize. As the alcohol rises it brings with it the scent of the wine. If you doubt this, sniff two glasses of the same wine, one sitting still and one just after you have swirled it. The scent will be more intense from the swirled wine. Some people put one hand over the bowl of the wineglass as they swirl in order to hold the aroma inside until they sniff. Aroma is the term used if the scent is fruity or flowery; it will give you some important clues about the grapes and winemaking methods used. The scent of a more complex and mature wine is called its bouquet. Bouquet may include aroma, but aroma does not include bouquet, an essential distinction in learning to describe wines. When sniffing the wine, don’t be shy. Put your nose right inside the glass so that the bridge of your nose touches the far side of the glass, then inhale. Try to describe the fragrance to yourself. A wine’s bouquet reflects the changes that have slowly taken place inside the bottle. The bouquet of a good mature wine is a significant part of the pleasure it gives. There are also “off ” odors to check for: vinegar, sulfur, or an inappropriate smell of sherry or Madeira in an ordinary table wine. Do not serve such wines. Finally taste the wine. Take a small sip, and roll it over your tongue. Hold it in your mouth for 10 seconds or so. The key to the taste of the wine is on your tongue; your taste buds are arranged so that they detect certain flavors on certain parts (see Figure 7.1). As you taste the wine you will perceive its sweetness first, then its sourness or acidity, then any bitterness at the back of your mouth as you swallow the wine. These tastes represent four components of the wine’s structure, a term used to describe the nature of a wine apart from its scent and flavors. The components that make up structure are: 䡲

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Sugar: Sweetness is sensed as the wine first enters your mouth. Acid: This is perceived mainly on the sides of your tongue as a tartness or sharpness. Tannins: A bitterness or astringency sensed on the rear of the tongue, tannins pucker the mouth, as strong tea does. Tannins are found mainly in red wines. Alcohol: Alcohol has a sweet flavor that enhances any other sweetness. Alcohol makes a wine seem round and full, although if a wine’s alcohol content is high, it can cause a slight sensation of heat in the mouth.

FIGURE 7.1 Taste buds on different parts of the human tongue taste different flavors.

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The way in which these four components relate to each other determines the balance of a given wine. Balance is the dynamic of the structure, that is, the way the components relate. Ideally, the richness created by the sweetness-plus-alcohol will counterbalance the harshness of the tannin-plus-acid, creating an impression of harmony. To the degree that this occurs in a wine, we say that the wine is balanced. More than any other factor, balance determines wine quality. When you first taste a wine, you are trying to find specific elements. The following are some of the common terms and characteristics: 䡲

䡲 䡲

Body: This is the feel of the wine in the mouth. Body comes from the amount of alcohol, sugar, glycerin (a soluble substance formed during fermentation), and extracts from the grapes, such as tannin. A wine is referred to as light or lightbodied if it is low in one or more of the body components. A full-bodied wine is typically high in body components. It will cling to the sides of the glass if you swirl it. (The glycerin content causes small streams of wine to run down the sides of the glass after you swirl; aficionados refer to these streams as the legs of the wine.) When you taste a full-bodied wine, it has a texture all its own, filling your mouth in a sensuous way. Degree of sweetness: If the grape sugar has been entirely consumed during fermentation, and none has been added, a wine will be totally lacking in sweetness, or dry. This is an important characteristic for your servers to know about each wine on your list since the most often-asked questions involve wine dryness. Generally, a dry wine or one with only a little sweetness is preferred with the meal, while a sweet wine is an appropriate beginning with lighter appetizers or as a finish to a meal. Many Americans brought up on carbonated soft drinks prefer a wine with some sweetness. Flavor intensity: This refers to whether a wine is light and delicate in flavor, full and concentrated, or somewhere in between. Again, your servers should have this information for each wine on your list. It is important in terms of matching wines with food. Tartness, acidity: This is a sharp, acid taste, like green fruit. In a balanced wine tartness is a crucial quality: It gives life to the wine. Softness: This is the opposite of tartness. The term is also used for an over-aged wine when its tannin is gone. Astringency: A taste that the beginner may mistake for dryness or acidity; astringency puckers the mouth. You will find it in young red wines that are not quite ready to drink. It comes from the tannin derived from the grape skins and will disappear as wines mature and mellow. Mellowness: The opposite of astringency, this term means “softened with age, ripe.” Finish: This is the aftertaste. A good wine should have a pleasant aftertaste in keeping with the wine itself. Character: This comprises positive, distinctive taste characteristics that indicate the wine is truly representative of the grape varietal(s) from which it was made. As to taste preferences the customer is always right. There are no longer rigid rules about what kind or color of wine to drink with what type of food.

Ultimately, taste is an individual matter. The Romans, for example, sometimes mixed their wines with seawater. Who’s to say they were right or wrong? Many customers

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know very little about wines, are intimidated by a printed wine list, and might not order wine at all unless they are encouraged by a friendly server who knows how each wine on the list tastes and which wine goes well with which food.

CREATING A WINE LIST Of course, we are suggesting that you include wines as part of your beverage lineup! When it comes to creating a wine list, however, a bar owner should first ask, “Do I need a wine list at all for my establishment?” Naturally, we suggest that you include wines in your beverage lineup. Many casual and midpriced bars and restaurants serve only a few house wines by the glass or carafe and make a very good profit in this uncomplicated and inexpensive way. Usually they offer four to six wine choices with familiar names and general appeal—a short enough list to print on a table tent. This simple selection, typically offered along with an assortment of beer and soft drinks, is very appropriate for certain types of dining situations. If you are going to sell wines by the bottle, you have four initial considerations: clientele, concept, cuisine, and price compatibility. Let’s examine them individually. 䡲

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The bar’s clientele will dictate the overall character of the wine list. You can keep it short, simple, and inexpensive; make it extensive, expensive, and loaded with prestigious choices; or settle somewhere in between. Will you sell by the bottle, by the carafe, by the glass? You have to know your target customers before you can make the basic decisions about what they will expect and how much they are willing to pay for it. The concept will set the tone for many critical details: how much of the wine is domestic versus imported and how esoteric the choices are; whether the list is a book, a sheet, a chalkboard, a table tent, and how it is worded; what types of glassware are required; and how extensively the servers must be trained, to name a few. Concept and cuisine go hand in hand. Consider the restaurant business: If fine French cuisine is served, clearly fine French wines are appropriate, although a few additional choices will make for a well-rounded and more interesting list. A steak house would list mostly red wines, with a few hearty whites and a couple of rosé s for people who want alternatives. If seafood is the specialty, you’d feature white wines and mostly reds that are lighter (so as not to overpower lighter types of fish) and yet can go with salmon—perhaps a Beaujolais from France or a Pinot Noir from Oregon, a Spanish Rioja or an Italian Montepulciano. A sparkling wine or two is always appropriate for special occasions. In a bar, the focus may or may not be on food—but you certainly will serve some food, and the wine selection should complement it. Price compatibility means that the wine choices should suit not only the types of food you will serve but also the other components of concept, the average check, and the price ranges of other food and beverage items. If each and every wine by the glass costs $2 more than the most popular mixed drinks or any of the appetizers, don’t be surprised if you don’t sell much wine. In restaurants, optimal sales result when the wine costs make up approximately one-fourth of the average check. This does not mean that every wine must fall into a specific price range; you can safely offer wines in several price ranges.

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Another point to consider is availability. Will you invest in a large stock that “sits on cash” in the cellar until it is sold or will you get regular selections in small quantities from your supplier? You don’t want to print a list that will soon be full of wines you can no longer obtain. If you are just beginning to offer wine as part of your service, it is better to start with a short list of readily available wines, including a sparkling wine—say, 15 to 20 brands altogether—and to buy frequently, a little at a time, until you find out what sells. A long wine list does not necessarily generate more sales than a short one, and it requires more training and teamwork on the part of your staff. It is easy to add to your list but difficult to get rid of a wine that customers don’t seem to care for. For most bar businesses, a limited, moderately priced wine list ensures favorable sales and regular inventory turnover. Speaking of inventory, your final consideration, and a major one, will be storage. No matter how small your selection, you will need to have a separate room (ideally, a cellar) to stock cases of it, depending on your needs. Wines should never be stored in a restaurant kitchen, where the average temperature is too hot: They can age too quickly, and wines served too warm are a turnoff for most customers. If you want a wine list befitting an upscale image and a knowledgeable clientele, it is essential that you find an expert to help you develop your list and advise you on purchasing. Critical factors to consider are the cellar space needed and the capital that must be invested. If space and funds are limited, wines that mature early and are ready to drink right now are the best choices. Taste the wines you are considering for your list, and ask your servers to taste them, too. This will greatly increase your servers’ interest in selling wines if they have been included in the selection process. Most suppliers will arrange comparative tastings, at least of moderately priced wines. You might hold a wine tasting for a group of regular customers to seek their opinions on new items. In short use more than just your own tastes and preferences as you decide which wines to sell.

List Mapping Greg Harrington is the founder and winemaker at Gramercy Cellars in Walla Walla, Washington. He is also a Master Sommelier who has held wine director positions with B. R. Guest Restaurants, Wolfgang Puck Fine Dining, and Emeril Lagasse Restaurants, to name a few. During his time in the restaurant industry, Harrington sought to make the wine-buying process more objective by creating a concept that he calls list mapping to develop a pricing structure for a wine list. “When I hear guests say a list is ‘expensive,’” says Harrington, “most are referring not to the restaurant’s markup but to the wine prices in relation to the restaurant’s concept and average check. List mapping is the system I use to counter this perception.” He uses restaurants in his explanation of the system, but the concept would also work for a bar and makes a great deal of sense. Harrington has generously given us permission to share his system for balancing a wine list by price and style, as he explained it in the June 2004 issue of Santé magazine.

Step 1: Develop the Average Bottle Price Range. Begin with the average price of the entrees on the menu. Let’s use $20 as an example. Multiply the average entreé price by two. This number ($40) represents the lowest price range, by the bottle, of the

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wines that should dominate the list. Next, add the average price of the entreé to this number for the higher price range of the wines that should dominate the list. For this hypothetical restaurant, the bulk of the wine list should be between the $40 to $60 (per bottle) range. Of course, the list should have selections lower and higher, but at least 35 to 45 percent of the selections should be in this range. Also, the majority of the list should be in the “sweet spot,” which is about $20 lower to $20 higher than the calculated range. The allocation would look something like this: Price

Percentage of List

$20–$40 $40–$60 $60–$80 $80–$100 $100+

20% 45% 15% 15% 5%

Step 2: Split the List between White and Red Selections. This is a very subjective calculation, which will change with the concept. I try to split the list between 35 percent white and 65 percent red with most of my programs. Seafood-dominant restaurants may be as high as 50/50 white to red, while steak houses may trend toward 25/75 white to red. Step 3: Select Each Wine Type and Price, Creating a Map of the Program. I find that the smaller the list, the more important mapping it becomes. As an example, let’s use a casual concept restaurant with a 100-bottle wine list and a $20 average entreé price. We’ll plan to purchase 35 white wines and 65 red wines. This is how I would map out the white wine section: Price

Percentage of List

$20–$40 $40–$60 $60–$80 $80–$100 $100+

Selection

20% 45% 15% 15% 5%

7 16 5 5 2

Once the mapping is complete, I select the types of white wine for the list. An example: California Chardonnay (7) _____ $20–$40 _____ $20–$40 _____ $40–$60 _____ $40–$60 _____ $60–$80 _____ $80–$100 _____ $100+

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Sauvignon Blanc (5)

White Burgundy (6)

_____ $20–$40 _____ $40–$60 _____ $40–$60 _____ $60–$80 _____ $80–$100

_____ $40–$60 _____ $40–$60 _____ $60–$80 _____ $80–$100 _____ $100+

Riesling (5) _____ $20–$40 _____ $40–$60 _____ $40–$60 _____ $60–$80

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Italian White (4) _____ $20–$40 _____ $40–$60 _____ $40–$60 _____ $60–$80

Miscellaneous (4) _____ $20–$40 _____ $40–$60 _____ $40–$60 _____ $40–$60

Spanish White (2) Rhone Varietals (2) _____ $20–$40 _____ $40–$60

_____ $40–$60 _____ $40–$60

Step 4: Select the Actual Wines from Your Suppliers. Note that list mapping forces you to consider the entire list. Make sure that you are also balancing the price selection in each price category. For example, in the $40 to $60 category, don’t select wines that will all sell for $58. List mapping provides the wine buyer with a solid plan and ensures a balanced, well-priced list. After the initial lists are developed, I provide wine-list maps for my buyers at each B. R. Guest restaurant. When a restaurant runs out of a wine, the buyer may replace it with a selection of the same category, which allows for buyer input and creativity, while still adhering to the structure imposed by the list map.

Matching Wine with Food Andrea Immer, a master sommelier, as well as an author and longtime beverage director, calls wine “a love letter to food.” Why? Acidity, which is a natural characteristic of wine, primes the customer’s taste buds for food. In cooking, this is why so many chefs use acidic ingredients, such as mustard, lemon, tomato, and vinegar. They enhance other flavors and work well to increase our enjoyment of food. Food and wine consumed together should “marry” well. This means that the two should be in balance; neither should dominate the other. Each should bring out different flavors in the other, and the combination should taste better than either one alone, thereby multiplying the total enjoyment. The wrong combination can diminish the food or the wine or both. Figure 7.2 lists traditional guidelines for serving wine with food. Overall they are sound, but it is hard to apply them in individual situations because today’s menu items often blend so many different spices, flavors, and ethnic styles that rules are hard to make—and even harder to follow. Furthermore, one dry white wine or one hearty red wine might differ widely from another. The next step is to provide the necessary balance. The only way to determine how to match a wine to a given menu item is to taste the two together. If possible, from the beginning, plan your wine list with the food choices for your bar business, even if they are all appetizers rather than traditional main courses and side dishes. Sit down with your wine expert and taste each item on your menu with wines that the expert suggests. Include your kitchen staff and servers, too. They are part of your sales team, whether they are behind the scenes or interacting with customers. If you already have a wine list you can pick the best matches from what you have, adding new wines if you discover that you need to.

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WHICH WINE WITH WHICH FOOD? STARTING POINTS Menu Item Appetizer Salad Fish or seafood Beef Lamb Veal Ham or pork Turkey, duck, chicken Game (venison, pheasant, wild duck) Lasagna, spaghetti, pizza Cheeses, full-flavored Cheeses, mild Desserts, pastries, fruits, mousses

Wine Suggestiona Champagne, dry white wine, dry sherry No wine Dry or medium-dry white Hearty red Hearty red Light red or full-bodied white Dry or medium-dry white or rosé Full-bodied white or light red Hearty red Hearty red Hearty red,b sweet white (with roquefort) Sherry, port, madeira, mild table wines of any type Semisweet sparkling wine, sweet white table wine

a

The diner’s choice takes precedence. If more than one wine is to be served, the general rules are white before red, light before hearty, and dry before sweet. b

Some experts disagree.

FIGURE 7.2

Presenting Wine Selections The wine list is a silent salesperson for your wine, just as your menu is for your food. There are several formats for presenting wine choices to customers. The chalkboard is the simplest; it is typically used in wine bars, especially for wines by the glass. It has a nice air of continental informality and gives the impression that you pay daily personal attention to the wine menu. The advantage of the chalkboard is that you don’t have to make long-range commitments in print. You can take full advantage of your wine suppliers’ sales and discounts and feature these wines on your board. The table tent has similar advantages. It is appropriate in informal restaurants serving only a few wines. It can also be used to promote specials or new offerings. Just be sure that your servers are familiar with the selections, no matter how quickly they change. For larger wine selections, a printed list should be available. It is given to one person at the table, usually the host, since wine by the bottle is typically ordered for

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the whole party. A printed list comes in two common formats: a printed card, or carte, similar to a menu, or pages folded inside a nice-looking cover. The latter format has several advantages: You can change the inside pages easily as your offerings change, reusing the more expensive cover. This type of list is often easier for the diner to handle than a single, oversized card. Also, depending on your state laws, your wine supplier might provide you with the permanent cover or even pay for the printing of the inner pages. We don’t recommend this cozy arrangement, which normally comes with a promise (from you) to give the supplier a certain (substantial) percentage of your business. Today’s computers and printers make it extremely easy to print your own lists, changing them as often as you need to, or to highlight daily specials or food/wine pairings. What your wine list says about your wines should be clear, honest, and useful. It should include key information relevant to making a choice, and this is where opinions differ among enophiles. Historically, wine lists have been grouped by varietal, by country or region, and/or by type, including reds, whites, rosés, sparkling wines, and dessert wines. “California whites,” for example, might further be listed in descending order from the driest to the sweetest. Today’s trend, however, is to be brief, clever, and descriptive using the wine list—both the way it is arranged and the way individual wines are described—to represent in simple terms how a server might respond if someone asked, “What’s this wine like?” The idea is to impart a very brief description of each wine’s chief characteristics. In addition to the category names, a single line on the list can instantly inform anyone who reads it. Is it dry, slightly sweet, or truly sweet; delicate, medium, or intense in flavor; light-, medium-, or full-bodied? Today, there is no reason the wording should be pretentious. Your wine list should show imagination and enthusiasm; it should make the whole subject of wine simple and inviting, not formidable and exclusive. The categories can be as fun or daring as your clientele and concept will allow. Hire a writer with some wine knowledge (and, perhaps, a sense of humor), research the wine publications and experts’ descriptions, and ask your suppliers to help create wording that will make the wines sound as good as they taste. Mention the foods that each wine complements. You must include all of the essential information that will establish a wine’s pedigree only if you are catering to connoisseurs. Even if your wine list is relatively small, a bin number for each wine can precede its name on the list. Numbering the wines serves three important purposes. First, it makes it easier to organize and inventory the wines in your storage area. Bartenders and servers can locate wines more quickly. Also it spares customers embarrassment if the wine is unfamiliar to them or if its name is hard to pronounce. Figure 7.3 is a simple but nicely developed wine list, with the wines chosen, annotated, numbered, and priced with customers in mind. Before you print your wine list check everything carefully and be sure that all items on it are spelled correctly. Your computer spell-checking program is almost worthless in the world of wine. When you’re in doubt, look at the labels! If your list contains misspellings your credibility is shot, especially with knowledgeable customers.

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WHITES BIN #

RED WINES (continued) Bottle

BIN #

Bottle

101

Kenwood Sauvignon Blanc Assertive citric flavors make this a great accompaniment for most foods.

24.00

303

Ravenswood Vintner’s Blend Zinfandel Good body and nice raspberry flavors; strong finish.

28.00

102

DeLoach Chardonnay Dry, with soft, fruit flavors and a lingering finish.

26.00

304

Saintsbury Pinot Noir Garnet Soft, earthy flavors; great choice for wild game or fish.

32.00

103

Penfold’s Chardonnay Light and fruity, with tropical undertones and a flowery bouquet.

28.00

305

Chateau Bel Air (Haut Medoc) A classic French Claret; soft, rich, and flavorful.

32.00

104

Dr. Burklin-Wolf Estate Riesling Ripe apple flavors; a white with depth and a strong finish.

30.00

306

Georges du Boeuf Beaujolais Villages A light, fruity, good-natured, all-purpose red.

22.00

105

R.H. Phillips Viognier 26.00 Smell this wine! Fresh, vibrant bouquet and strong fruit flavors set it apart.

307

Rosemount Shiraz 26.00 A full-bodied but soft red from Australia.

308

Clerget Pouilly Fuisse A classic French-style Chardonnay; austere and rich.

35.00

Lorinon Crianza Rioja Spain’s classic Tempranillo grape; spicy and earthy.

24.00

106

309

Cavit Pinot Grigio Fresh, light, and palate-pleasing; a “summer-style” white.

22.00

Antinori Chianti An Italian standard; peppery and tangy; lingering finish.

27.00

107

SPARKLING WINES

BLUSH WINES 201

Sutter Home White Zinfandel Fruity, pretty salmon color; perfect with lighter dishes.

17.00

202

Bonny Doon Vin Gris (“Pink Wine”) A dry, food-style Rosé with a whimsical finish.

22.00

401

Mont Marcal Cava NV Spain’s Methode Champenoise sparkler; bright and fun.

402

Korbel Brut NV 24.00 California’s most popular sparkling wine.

403

Moet & Chandon White Star An elegant, semi-dry French Champagne.

RED WINES 301

302

Hess Select Cabernet Sauvignon Rich Flavors with cedar overtones; classic Napa style.

24.00

Newlan Merlot A subtle red wine with finesse; layers of flavor.

37.00

20.00

37.00

HOUSE WINES By the glass $7

Leaping Lizard (Sonoma, CA) Chardonnay, Merlot, Cabernet

By the bottle 20

FIGURE 7.3 A wine list for a moderately priced restaurant.

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By-the-Glass Programs We believe that it is mandatory for bars and restaurants to offer some wines by the glass (BTG). Often one customer or a couple would rather buy one or two glasses of wine than a full bottle they might not finish. Wine by the glass is also a good option for people eating together but who prefer different wines, and also for those who are on a budget that simply cannot stretch to afford a full bottle. Perhaps most important, BTG sales can prompt people to experiment, to try new and perhaps more expensive wines than they would usually buy. If they like it, they will buy it again, perhaps by the bottle. Your profit by the glass is also much higher than a full bottle sale, as you will see in the next section’s discussion about pricing wines. A good, basic BTG program should be diverse. Your ability to change it frequently allows you to take advantage of sale items offered by wine distributors and to control your inventory, which means introducing new wines or “clearing out” those that, by the bottle, have not been selling very well. You can also pair the wines with daily food specials. The selection does not have to be extensive: four reds, three whites, two rosés (a dry and a sweet), and one Champagne or sparkling wine might be sufficient. You can build from there depending on your customers’ wine knowledge and budget. One important consideration for a BTG program is the glassware in which the wines will be served. It can appear miserly to serve today’s standard pour of 5 ounces in a glass with a 22-ounce bowl, no matter how elegant the stemware—and we’ve said so on a few occasions to our servers when presented with a glass that looks like someone already drank half of it! Investing in some 12-ounce to 16-ounce glassware for your BTG program could make people feel, in a word, less ripped off. Upscale bars and restaurants have fun with some inventive BTG ideas. Some stock a small number of very prestigious vintages to sell by the glass, with the theory that their customers would love to try a glass, even at $20 or more, but probably would not splurge on a full bottle that costs $100 or more. Another way to acquaint customers with your full-bottle choices (or to test wines before you put them on the regular list) is to offer wine flights. These are two-ounce “tastes” of three or four different wines, priced from, say, $10 to $15, depending on the wines. Wine flights create a little more work for servers, but they are an excellent educational tool, both for the customer and the bar. Plan the program so that all BTG pours are used within two days. If you cannot empty a bottle within two days, your servers are not doing enough to sell it. Partially used bottles should be refrigerated at the end of the day and, if your BTG business is brisk enough to warrant it, the bar should most definitely invest in wine-storage tools that keep wines fresh by displacing the oxygen in partially used bottles. (These are discussed later in this chapter.) A small but growing number of bars have adapted a winning idea from beer manufacturers and are serving BTG wines from a keg-and-tap system. If the idea is to keep the wine from being exposed to oxygen in order to keep it as fresh as possible between pours, a keg makes perfect sense. The main difference is that beer requires a higher-pressure gas to maintain its carbonation as it is being forced from the keg through the lines to the tap; wine works best with nitrogen, a lower-pressure gas. The gas displaces the air in the tank as the wine is poured, keeping oxygen out.

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WHAT MAKES A WINNING WINE LIST? Restaurant Hospitality magazine conducts an annual Best Wine List in America competition. Entries are sorted by size and category, and they are eliminated immediately if poorly written or contain what the judges term “serious technical flaws.” We realize it has been a while since the 2003 panel of judges explained what they look for in a great wine list, but their comments are as relevant as if they had convened last week. They are as follows:

䡲 䡲

Overall wine selection: “We were looking for lists that chose the best examples in any given style and price point. We wanted to see a thoughtful selection of quality wines, and not a wine list driven by price point and category decisions.” Variety in style and brands: “We were looking for diverse lists with a wide selection of styles, producers, and regions. (One restaurant had a large selection of wines by the glass—all from one winery and its “family” of imported wines. Sweetheart deals with one supplier are not in the interest of the consumer.)” Fair pricing and value options: “We looked at each list to see if the pricing was fair for the consumer, with reasonable markups taken. (We took into consideration the higher prices and excessive taxes that restaurants face in some states.) We also looked at each list to see if there were a few inexpensive but decent alternatives for price-conscious diners.”

Compatibility with the menu: “A wine list with a focus on great big Cabernets can be awe-inspiring, but it is strangely out of place in a fish house. No matter how large the list, each and every wine should be chosen because it complements the restaurant’s food, and for no other reason.” Presentation: “Your wine list speaks for your restaurant. Make sure that it is neat, well organized, and readable.” Extras: “Wines from unique regions, availability of half-bottles, tasting notes, and other well-thought-out extras were noted and awarded points.” Overall impression: “A good wine list should encourage consumers to explore new wines. It should be interesting to read. Ultimately, we were looking for creativity and imagination. A boring wine list is not a great wine list.”

Judges on the 2003 panel also noted that large wine suppliers had an all-too-obvious role in influencing or cowriting many of the lists: “Many lists offered wines from only two or three major importers or companies,” they observed. “Limiting . . . wine selections from just a few sources deprives consumers of the myriad choices and experiences the highly diverse U.S. wine market provides.” Source: “Class in a Glass,” Restaurant Hospitality magazine, Penton Media, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio, May 2003.

The few wine keg-and-tap systems in place have been created from scratch by entrepreneurial bar or restaurant owners, but you can be certain such systems are being developed and marketed by the time you read this. The potential environmental benefits, including use of less glass and cork, and the overall convenience of such a system will no doubt appeal to many.

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WOMEN AS WINE BUYERS Among the three major beverage alcohol categories, women dominate only in consumption of wine (although the split for spirits is roughly even). According to the Simmons Market Research Bureau 2006 Study of Media and Markets, women account for 58 percent of domestic table wine drinkers, 55 percent of imported table wine drinkers, 60 percent of Champagne and sparkling wine drinkers, and 54 percent of port, sherry, and dessert wine drinkers. According to the Wine Market Council, 54 percent of overall wine drinkers are female. Christian Miller, a principal with the Internet research organization Wine Opinions and the proprietor of Full Glass Research, says women are less likely to purchase wine priced over $20, although in raw numbers the difference narrows because of the prevalence of female purchasers. “In the Wine Opinions panel, 4 percent of females frequently purchase $40-and-above wines, as opposed to 7 percent of males,” he says, noting there was no statistically significant difference because of sample size. The panel found that 19 percent of female respondents reported buying high-priced wines occasionally, compared to 31

percent of males. “The difference shrinks considerably for wines in the $20 to $40 price range and disappears for wines below $20,” Miller says. When asked if they’ve ever bought wines prices at $100 or more, 45 percent of Wine Opinions males say yes versus only 24 percent of females. In a 2009 study of women’s wine-drinking habits in five countries—France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States—the Americans’ preferences were markedly different in some cases from their counterparts in other nations. Of the American women surveyed, 93 percent said they drink wine daily for these reasons: because they like the taste (92 percent), because it goes well with food (71 percent), and because they believe it is compatible with a healthy, balanced diet (97 percent). They cited the two most important factors in wine selection as the grape variety and the price, and said they prefer to try new wines than buy one they had tasted before and liked. Source: Excerpted with permission from Market Watch magazine, March 2008, and The Wine Spectator, April 28, 2009.

Pricing Wines For many years, the standard wine markup in the industry for bars and restaurants has been “2.5,” which means that you can charge 2½ times what you paid to purchase the bottle from the supplier. For example, you would charge $15 for a bottle that cost you $6. Some establishments, including country clubs, private clubs, and fancy restaurants in big cities, have gotten away with charging three times the wholesale cost, or even a bit more. That $6 bottle of wine would cost $18 or $20 at such places. These businesses have justified the percentages by citing their additional inventory and labor costs for storing and serving the wines, glassware, and so on. Today the “2.5 tradition” is no longer automatic. Most customers know enough about wines to be well aware that when they dine out, they pay far more than the

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price of the same wine at their local supermarket or warehouse-club store. They are also starting to ask, “Why is this necessary?” Indeed, the practice can seem like price gouging. So, some forward-thinking restaurants and bars are striving to make wines a better value by simply doubling each bottle’s wholesale cost. This amounts to a 100-percent profit per bottle, which is still a healthy figure. We know of at least one restaurant that makes things even simpler, adding a flat $15 to the wholesale cost. These establishments claim that the increased volume of wine sold more than makes up for the slightly lower prices. For wines sold by the glass, the simplest way to price is to divide the price that you are charging for the bottle on your wine list by five. The standard pour today is 5 ounces, which equates to five glasses from every 750 ml bottle (incidentally, it was four glasses per bottle until very recently). However, some bar owners and restaurateurs feel that it is only fair to charge a bit more for the general hassle of offering individual glasses. Their aim is to pay for the entire bottle with the sale of the first glass. The other four glasses are pure profit. Of course, wine sales improve tremendously when prices are reasonable. There should be a few BTG bargains (under $6), although today’s bars have no trouble selling $7 to $9 glasses of wine. The whole idea is to prompt the guest to try it. Pricing for a higher-end wine list might not be so closely tied to menu pricing, since wine enthusiasts are more likely to tolerate, and even expect, higher markups on rare and coveted vintages. Then again, pricing wines at markups below the norm will surprise and delight people who know enough to understand the excellent value they are getting, thereby earning you some true customer loyalty. Finally, don’t forget to use pricing as a tool to promote your wines. For example, Lambertville Station in Lambertville, New Jersey, makes its slowest night “Wine Appreciation Night.” On that night only, wines by the bottle are available at only $1 or $2 more than the wholesale price. This promotion has increased Lambertville Station’s Monday-night business by 15 to 20 percent.

THE ROLE OF THE SERVER Even a great wine list does not sell a great deal of wine by itself. No matter what their level of wine knowledge, most people depend on their server for some guidance. Many customers worry about wasting their money choosing a wine that they might not enjoy, mispronouncing the name, showing their ignorance, and so on. Rather than risk it, they simply avoid it. If, instead, customers felt that they could comfortably discuss the choices with their server, they might be interested in trying a bottle or, at least, a glass. Unfortunately, most servers have their own concerns. They also might be somewhat intimidated by the wine list, or feel uncomfortable opening the bottle at the table, or wonder if they’ll know how to answer guests’ questions. It all sounds a little like a first date, doesn’t it? For the proprietor, if these concerns are not addressed, countless opportunities to increase wine sales—and servers’ tips—will go unmet.

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The solution is to educate bartenders and serving staff about each wine on your list, a process that begins during the hiring process. Include questions about wine knowledge in your employment interviews, and develop a well-organized and ongoing wine-sales training program for your staff. It will enable them to answer customer questions, build their own enthusiasm for selling wine, assist in team-building efforts, and give them a sense of professionalism. When they realize that wine knowledge and sales techniques can increase their tips by $5, $25, or more per shift, they will be eager to know more. A good training program is carefully planned, scheduled regularly in short sessions (15 or 20 minutes a week), and consistently carried out. It must include tastings and retastings of every wine, as well as wine comparisons. Taste training should include learning to describe each wine in terms of color, degree of sweetness, body, flavor intensity, and other aspects of tasting discussed in Chapter 6. Most wine suppliers are happy to provide both wine samples and instruction—as long as they are given adequate advance notice. You should be involved, too, either as an instructor or as a trainee. Your training sessions should also cover the region of origin of each wine; the meaning of the information on the wine label, especially the vintage date and specific quality category; and the name and characteristics of the grapes from which the wine is made. Talk about which menu items each wine complements and serve sample-sized food portions at the training session. Keep each lesson simple, focusing on no more than two or three wines and a few key points. There is so much to be learned and presenting too much information at a time is discouraging. In addition wine lessons should occasionally cover the very practical business of wine etiquette, including knowing how to open bottles, what to do if a cork breaks, and what to say if a customer rejects a wine. Allow the servers to role-play and practice. One restaurateur quizzes his staff about what they have learned during their wine sessions and rewards correct answers with scratch-off lottery tickets. The tickets cost him only $1 apiece, but they add a dimension of fun to the learning process. Suppliers are eager to sell their wines and will often support contests for the servers by offering prizes for selling so much of a special wine or one that is BTG—so ask them how they can help you.

Increasing Wine Sales Take wine education another step by adding sales techniques. Any kind of special occasion—a birthday, retirement, engagement, anniversary—calls for the server to suggest a sparkling wine or Champagne. An attentive server who notices the wine levels in customers’ glasses, continues to refill them, mentions promptly that the bottle is empty, and says, “Would you care for another bottle, or a glass?” is providing good service and probably boosting sales as well. Selecting a couple of featured wines and mentioning them to just-seated guests will implant a sales suggestion. (“Featured” doesn’t necessarily mean lowering prices, just that the wines are of special focus.) If guests decline dessert, your servers should be trained to ask, “Well, then, how about a dessert wine or nice glass of port?” Consider splitting the staff into

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teams and running a contest to boost wine sales, with a specific percentage and time frame in mind. Ask the waitstaff to brainstorm with you for new wine-sales ideas. Many wine suppliers feel that when wine-sales potential goes unrealized in a bar or restaurant, the problem is usually a training issue. Suppliers cite a growing market of customers who are interested in exploring wines, expanding their knowledge about wines, and sampling good food/wine matches. Customers might be drinking less, but they’re drinking better—and these are candidates for food-and-wine tasting events, interesting BTG programs, monthly tasting groups, and so on. Events may focus on the food or wine of a particular region, celebrate a special occasion, introduce wines from all over the world, or compare several bottles from a specific winery. Not only can such events be very profitable, they can build customer interest in wine that can pay off in future sales. These customers might also be intrigued by special wine tastings, which enhance your reputation as a place to enjoy wines. Your suppliers will be happy to help organize a tasting event if a visiting winemaker is in town to preside and instruct. Invite your own customers and entice the general public by contacting your local newspaper and radio stations a couple of weeks in advance of the event. Again, give a theme to the tasting: regional wines, varietal wines, wines from Spain, wines for the holidays. Serve light foods—baguettes, crackers, fruit and cheese—in conjunction with the tasting, with a delicious food-and-wine match as a finale. A “taste” of wine is 1 to 2 ounces per guest, so you should be able to serve 10 to 12 people per 750-ml bottle. Wine by the glass also appeals to this customer group because it enables them to sample a variety of wines in a single evening. The best way to increase wine sales to all types of customers is to develop your sales personnel. When you train them to know the wines on your list and the foods they accompany, you increase their enjoyment, their professionalism, their enthusiasm, and their value to you as employees—and ultimately your profit margin.

SERVING WINES Few aspects of the gastronomic experience are as steeped in tradition as wine service. Part of the pomp and circumstance is necessary to present certain wines at their physical best; other parts are strictly showmanship, done for fun or out of respect for tradition. Even the mavericks in the industry, who decry the decanting and cork-sniffing that have given formal wine service its stuffy reputation, agree that some wines and occasions warrant special treatment. Also, whether the wine that customers have chosen is an inexpensive house wine at the bar or the finest bottle in the finest restaurant, they generally expect and appreciate proper wine service.

Wineglasses One of the policy decisions you must make as a bar owner or restaurateur is whether to bring the wineglass to the customer already poured or to place an empty glass in front of the customer and pour as he or she watches. When a wine is brought already

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poured to the guest, the glass should hold 5 or 6 ounces of wine. As mentioned in our discussion of by-the-glass programs, the customer might feel cheated if the glass looks more empty than full. Ironically, when the wine is poured in the presence of the guest, it is traditional to pour a little less, perhaps 3 ounces, since it is assumed that the customer will want to swirl the wine in the glass. The basic all-purpose wineglass has an 8- or 9-ounce bowl, and is made of clear glass with a long, thin stem and a base. If, however, wine service is going to be a priority in your business, you will probably want to invest in glasses with larger (12ounce or 16-ounce) bowls. Even bigger bowls are available, 20- to 24-ounces. These glasses are showy and expensive, and can be awkward to drink from—but if your concept is upscale, they certainly are distinctive. The reason for a larger glass is not to pour more wine per serving, but to allow for better swirling inside the bowl. You should also consider having at least three different, but very basic, types of wineglasses: for reds, whites, and sparklers. Figure 7.4 shows the difference. Glasses for reds have larger very rounded bowls to facilitate better swirling and sniffing of the wine. Glasses for whites are narrower at the top, which helps “hold in” their more delicate bouquets. Rosé wines are also usually served in white wineglasses. Tall, thin glasses called flutes are appropriate for Champagnes and other sparklers. Their very narrow openings keep them colder longer (sometimes called “saucers”) and help to keep the bubbles from dissipating. The wide, flat Champagne goblets that used to be so popular at weddings fell out of favor years ago, but they are making a fun, kitschy comeback in some bars. Our problem with them is that the wine goes flat too quickly. In addition to the three basic wineglass designs, there are many specialty glasses for different types of wine. Dessert wines are served in small after-dinner glasses. These are larger than a liqueur glass but much smaller than an ordinary wineglass, and they generally do not have stems. These glasses hold 4 to 6 ounces, but the serving

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

FIGURE 7.4 Types of wine glasses: (a) fluted sparkling wineglass, (b) champagne bowl, (c) white wineglass, (d) red wineglass, and (e) balloon wineglass.

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size is half that. Ports and sherries are served in simple glasses—again, a 4- to 6-ounce size, for a 2- to 3-ounce serving (see Figure 7.5).

Serving Wine at Table Proper table setting for wine service is important, even in a bar, both for etiquette and for efficiency of service. To begin, your glassware should be kept sparkling clean, and staff should hold it by the stem and set it down before the customer in a manner that dignifies wine as the graceful drink it is. The wineglass belongs to the right of the water glass, as shown in Figure 7.6. If setting tables with wineglasses in advance does not fit your image or your clientele, servers should place the glasses in the correct position when the wine is brought to the table. If more than one wine is to be served, for instance, at a formal, multiple-course banquet, the wineglasses are arranged in order of service, with the first wine at the right, and each glass is removed at the end of the course that the wine accompanied. A wineglass should generally be handled by its stem, as just mentioned, although a more informal way of carrying it is to hold it upside down by the base, with the stem between the fingers. You can carry as many as four wineglasses in one hand this way. In either case, the server should never touch the bowl. In formal service the glasses are brought to the table on a tray held at waist level.

FIGURE 7.5 A port glass.

Serving Temperatures for Wines Wine must be served at the right temperature: 45°F to 55°F for white wines and rosés, and 60°F to 65°F for reds. Wines served by the glass or carafe should be prechilled to the proper temperatures. White wines by the bottle should be kept in a cool place and chilled as ordered. This takes 10 to 20 minutes in a wine chiller. The

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 7.6 Table setting with wineglasses: (a) One wine: a single, all-purpose glass. (b) Two wines: the white-wineglass at the bottom, to be served first. (c ) Three wines: an apertif (white) at the bottom right, a white above it for the fish course, a red at left for the entree. If more than three wines are to be served each additional glass is set in place at time of service. Empty glasses are removed. The extra glass at each setting is for water.

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FIGURE 7.7 Technology has allowed the sleek tabletop wine chiller to replace the messier ice bucket in most restaurants. Courtesy of Co-Rect Products, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

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most efficient procedure is to place some crushed ice in the bottom of the chiller, put the bottle in, surround it with crushed ice, and add a little water (and some table salt for faster melting if you wish). If you don’t have crushed ice, place a layer of cubes in the bottom of the chiller, put the bottle in, add more cubes until the chiller is two thirds full and add cold water. Bring the wine to the table in the chiller. Figure 7.7 shows one of the latest styles in chillers for the table. Some chillers have a separate ice compartment, which prevents the problem of pouring from a wet, and dripping bottle. For truly elegant service, a fine Champagne or sweet white wine is often served from a tall, silver wine chiller placed beside the host’s chair. It is rare, but not unheard of, for wine to be ordered on the rocks, usually for refreshing wine coolers or wine spritzers. In these cases, the wine may still be served in a wineglass. Fill the glass one third full with ice, then pour the wine over the ice to within about half an inch of the top. If you offer a white wine that sells at a steady, predictable rate, you can keep a one- or two-day supply in the refrigerator, but no wine should be kept chilled for more than a week, and no wine should be put into a freezer. Overly quick chilling might cause it to throw sediment, which means to precipitate solids that are in solution. These solids are tiny crystals that drift to the bottom of the bottle and stick to the surface of the cork. The crystals are completely harmless, but some people, aghast that there is something crunchy in their wine, assume that it is shards of glass and, understandably, refuse to drink the wine. You can try to explain and reassure them, but the customer is within his or her right to refuse a bottle that contains sediment. (We’ll discuss the decanting process for older wines that also contain sediment later in this chapter.) Red wines should never be served warmer than 70°F. Unless they are specifically meant to be heated (as in the case of hot spiced wines for winter, such as Glühwein from Germany, or Japanese sake), the rule is never to serve red wines warm. At temperatures above 70°F, no matter how good the wine, the alcohol is the component that becomes the most pronounced, overshadowing the fruit and making the wine taste sharp and unpleasant. A fine, expensive red wine should be served at 65°F; younger wines, such as the fruity Beaujolais, can be served a few degrees colder. Sometimes a bit of chilling takes the harsh edge off a thin or rough wine. Sparkling wines should be served well chilled. Sweet white wines should also be served very cold, except for certain German wines, which should not be served below 55°F. The process of opening a bottle of red wine and allowing it to “breathe” a few minutes before pouring is the subject of much wine-snob-related humor. Breathing means aeration, the act of exposing the wine to air. Red wines do change slightly when exposed to air, and some people feel that giving the wine a minute or two after opening enables these delicate chemical changes to rid the wine of any aroma of mustiness that it might have developed in storage. In fact the wine gets plenty of air as it is poured and while it sits in a wide-mouthed red wineglass, so an extra “breathing” ritual is not necessary.

Presenting the Wine The ceremony of wine service is one part efficiency and one part showmanship. Seasoned wine drinkers expect a ritual, each of whose steps has a practical reason. These steps are shown in Figure 7.8. With the glasses in place on the table, the server

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stands near the host (to the right of the host whenever possible) with the bottle of wine. If the bottle is in a chiller, the server removes it from the chiller and wipes it off with a clean napkin. Your server should have a clean, white service napkin or serviette (French for “napkin” or towel) on hand whenever he or she serves wine. The napkin serves several purposes as you’ll soon see. The other item that every server should bring to the table is an additional wineglass. You’ll learn why in a moment. Holding the body of the bottle from underneath, with the label toward the host, the server shows the bottle to the host for his or her approval (see Figure 7.8a). (Of course before the server even got to the table, he or she looked carefully at the label to be sure that the wine is indeed what the customer ordered.) Now it’s time to open the bottle. With a screwcap closure, of course, the following instructions do not apply; they are only for wines with natural corks or synthetic cork-shaped closures. The most practical opener is the flat jackknife type, known as a waiter’s friend or waiter’s corkscrew, which fits easily into the pocket. Using the blade of the small knife on one side of the opener, the server cuts through the capsule, the piece of foil that covers the neck of the bottle (see Figure 7.8b). The server does not remove the entire capsule, just the top part, using the ridge near the lip of the bottle as a guide

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(a) Showing the bottle to the host/guest.

(b) Cutting the foil.

(c) Removing the top of the foil capsule.

(d) Inserting the corkscrew. FIGURE 7.8 Wine service.

(e) Turning the corkscrew.

(f ) Positioning the corkscrew prongs.

Courtesy of the Culinary Institute of America, Hyde Park, New York.

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(g) Using the lever to raise the cork.

(h) Lifting the cork out of the bottle.

(i) Removing the cork. FIGURE 7.8 (Continued)

(j) Pouring the wine.

(see Figure 7.8c). (Note: Some wineries now skip the capsule and use a little circle of plastic or wax instead to seal the very top of the bottle. If that’s the case, there is no need to remove it; the server should leave it in place and let the corkscrew go right through it.) If there is mold around the top of the bottle, the server should simply wipe the cork and the lip of the bottle with his or her napkin; the mold won’t hurt the wine. The server then closes the blade, extends the lever at the other end of the corkscrew, and pulls down the corkscrew to form a “T.” He or she then inserts the corkscrew with the point slightly off center (see Figure 7.8d) so that the screw, also called an augur or worm, is directly over the middle of the cork. Keeping the augur completely vertical, the server turns it clockwise until all of it has disappeared into the cork up to the shaft (see Figure 7.8e). Next, the server moves the prongs of the lever into position on the rim of the bottle (see Figure 7.8f) and holds the lever firmly in place with his or her thumb. The lever is designed to catch the lip of the bottle, but the server really does need to hold it or it might slip. The server holds the bottle and lever together with a firm, steady pressure and slowly raises the opposite end of the opener (see Figure 7.8g). This brings the cork out of the bottle (see Figures 7.8h and 7.8i). The steady pressure on the lever is most important. Without it, a stubborn cork could cause the

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lip of the bottle to break. Photos and descriptions of other types of corkscrews are found in Chapter 4. Now that you know how the wine-serving process is supposed to go, it is time to address potential problems that may occur during the procedure: 䡲

What if the cork (or closure) just won’t budge? To dislodge the cork, the server might need to twist the whole corkscrew back and forth, which should help to loosen a cork with a tight seal. What if the cork breaks? The server removes the top half of the cork, then gently places the screw back inside the bottle and removes the rest of the cork just like he or she did the top half. Working gently prevents pushing the other half of the cork down into the bottle. Some waiters prefer to handle a broken cork away from the table. They apologize, take FIGURE 7.9 Wine-service tools the bottle away, extract the cork, and bring the bottle back. (counterclockwise from top right): basket Servers should handle this as discreetly as possible, remedy- or cradle, candle used for decanting wine, wine chiller, decanting funnel, thermometer, ing the problem and returning quickly with the wine. What if the server pushes the cork into the bottle? This sparkling-wine pliers, cork retriever, sparklingcertainly won’t hurt the wine, but it’s not good form and the wine cap or preserver, another cork retriever, wine should not be served that way unless the customers tastevin, thermometer. Courtesy of the Culinary Institute of America, Hyde Park, New York. insist that it is acceptable. Most bars and restaurants should have a cork retriever on hand (see Figure 7.9). Its long wires are designed to be inserted into the bottle to grab the cork and tighten around it. The idea is to turn the floating cork upright and use the wires to pull it out of the bottle. This process takes some practice, but it works very well. Again, servers should not do this in front of guests! They should apologize and take the bottle away, promising to have it back promptly.

Most of the time, the cork or other closure will come out without any trouble. After removing it the server should wipe the lip of the bottle inside and out with a clean corner of the napkin, remove the augur from the cork, and set the cork down on the table near the host. There is usually no need to present the cork for an elaborate inspection and, in Chapter 6, you learned that many wines have synthetic closures or even screwcaps. Wine lore suggests sniffing the cork to see if the wine has gone bad, but today’s experts agree that doing so will not tell you much of anything—well, except how cork smells. Wine has to be looked at and tasted to determine its quality and condition. The tradition of presenting the cork can be traced to the first half of the twentieth century, when enterprising con artists tried to make money off great European wineries. The empty bottles with their prestigious labels were reused: They were refilled with inferior products and recorked. One method of ensuring the wine was not counterfeit was to check for an original cork, which was always stamped with the winery name or logo. The next step in the wine-presentation process is to pour about an ounce of wine into the host’s glass for tasting and approval (see Figure 7.8j). If a bit of cork falls into this glass, the server should use the spare glass that he or she brought to the table to pour another taste for the host, removing the wine with the cork in it

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when he or she leaves the table. To prevent drips, the server should twist his or her wrist slightly as the pour is ended and raise the neck of the bottle. When the host has approved the wine, the server pours wine for the other guests first, serving the host last. It is permissible to move counterclockwise around the table, serving from the right if possible. Etiquette suggests pouring women’s glasses first, then men’s, then the host’s—whether the host is male or female. Each glass should not be poured more than half full. The best way to hold the bottle is by the middle of the body, not by the neck. When everyone is served, the wine should be placed on the table near the host or returned to the chiller if it is being served cold. Then the server should take the capsule, the spare glass, and the napkin when leaving the table. As the meal progresses the server should keep an eye on the wineglasses, replenishing them as they are emptied. When white wine is gone, it is customary to put the bottle upside down in the chiller to signal the host that it is empty. Suggestive selling would include a polite question to the host: “May I bring you another bottle?”

Serving Champagne Because Champagne and other sparkling wines are under great pressure (about 90 pounds per square inch) and the bottles are sealed with special mushroom-shaped corks, they have to be opened and served in a special manner. Champagne is always served well chilled, partly to dull the pressure a bit. The warmer the wine, the more it will fizz and the faster it will lose its effervescence. It is important to handle these bottles gently so as not to agitate the wine. Shaking the bottles only makes them messier to open, which looks fun in the movies but wastes half the contents and flattens the rest of the wine. Figure 7.10 shows how to open a Champagne bottle. First, present the bottle for the host’s approval (Figure 7.10a). When you remove the foil capsule that covers the top of the bottle, you will find a wire hood called a cage. You can remove the foil with the blade on your corkscrew or with your hands. Keep one thumb on the top of the cork (Figure 7.10b) while you untwist the wire fastener that holds the cage on. You can remove the cage (Figure 7.10c), or just loosen it. You don’t need a corkscrew to open a Champagne bottle. Keep one hand on the cork. (Some people cover this hand loosely with a clean towel or napkin to prevent the cork from hitting anything if it pops out with force.) With the other hand, hold the bottle at about a 45-degree angle, pointing it away from the guests—and anything breakable. The reason you tilt the bottle is to give the wine inside as much airspace as possible. This eases pressure and prevents the wine from “exploding” out of the bottle. Hold the cork steady, and slowly twist the bottle in one direction only, about a quarter turn at a time (see Figure 7.10d). Don’t pull on the cork; just hold it firmly and rotate the bottle. The pressure inside the bottle, plus the twisting motion, will ease the cork out gently. It should make a nice “thunk,” not an enormous pop-and-spray! When the cork comes out, hold it close to the bottle and keep the bottle at an angle for at least five seconds before pouring (Figure 7.10e). This equalizes the pressure, letting gas escape without taking the Champagne along with it. But just in case, have a towel and an empty Champagne flute with you. If you happen to have a wild bottle, immediately pour some Champagne and the bottle will stop gushing.

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(a) Presenting the bottle to the host/guest.

(b) Removing the foil capsule.

(d ) Holding the cork steady and twisting the bottle.

(e) Holding the bottle at an angle.

(f ) The first step of pouring, mostly froth.

(g) The second step of pouring, more wine than froth.

FIGURE 7.10 Champagne service.

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(c) Removing the wire cage with one hand on the cork.

Courtesy of the Culinary Institute of America,

Hyde Park, New York.

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You serve Champagne the way you do other wines: by setting the cork near the host and pouring a taste for the host first. Bubbly is poured in two motions. The first motion brings mostly frothy effervescence (Figure 7.10f). Let the bubbles settle. The second pour should slowly fill the glass about two-thirds full (Figure 7.10g). When everyone is served, the bottle is put back into the chiller to conserve the bubbles. Remember, sparkling wine should be served to a discerning clientele in a tall, thin, tulip-shaped flute, to better conserve the effervescence and aroma. Do not chill these glasses in advance. The condensation on a chilled glass dilutes the Champagne and dissipates the bubbles more quickly.

Decanting Wines To decant a wine means to pour it out of the bottle and into another container. This is done so that sediment that may have formed inside the bottle stays in the bottle, and so that the wine poured for guests is clear and not clouded by the sediment. You might be surprised at how many wines benefit from decanting. Generally, these include reds that are 10 years or older; rare, older white wines; and vintagedated ports. The latter almost always contain sediment; the older the port, the more sediment it has thrown. “Big” young reds and whites may also be decanted, not because of sediment but to aerate them before serving. In case you have not seen the decanting process, you will discover that it involves a bit of romance and tradition. Here’s how to do it: First handle the bottle to be decanted very gently. You want to keep the sediment all in one place in the bottle and keep it from mixing with the wine. You can do this in two ways: by standing the bottle up for a day or two before opening it so the sediment all falls to the bottom, or by keeping the bottle on its side, just as it was stored, so the sediment settles on one side of the bottle. (If you remember to store the wine with the label face up, the sediment will fall to the back of the bottle. This is the best position because the customer can see the label when it is time to decant and serve the wine.) Sometimes the bottle is carried to the table in a special decanting cradle or wine basket, as shown in Figure 7.11. These carriers keep the wine in an almost horizontal position. The wine is not removed from the cradle or basket; you present, open, and decant the while it is still on its side. You will need a decanter, a clear glass container in which to put the wine, and a lighted candle (see Figure 7.11a). Place the candle just behind the shoulder of the bottle. This bit of extra light is used to see the wine clearly as it passes through the neck. Open the bottle, then pour the wine slowly and steadily in a single motion without stopping, until the candlelight shows sediment approaching the neck of the bottle (Figure 7.11b). The remainder of the wine—only a small amount—is not served, and the clear wine is served from the decanter. Leave both the decanter and the bottle with the guests so that they can still look at the label. Since only a small proportion of wines served will require decanting, only the sommelier, or wine steward, or one or two experienced servers need this special training. However, your entire serving staff should at least be familiar with the process and the reason for it, as well as the other routines of wine service.

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(a)

FIGURE 7.11 Decanting wine. The flame is behind the bottle, not touching it.

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(b) Courtesy of

the Culinary Institute of America, Hyde Park, New York.

“Bad” Wine It’s bound to happen; sooner or later, someone will refuse a bottle of wine, claiming even before they taste it that it has an “off ” odor or color; or they might send back the wine and not want to pay for it because they tasted it and do not like it. You might as well have a policy that addresses this rare instance. It is customary to replace the bottle of wine with the customer’s choice: another bottle of the same wine or a different wine altogether in a similar price range. The difficult part is just because a customer doesn’t happen to like a wine does not make it a bad wine. Wine that contains sediment or crystals is not bad, although you might have to explain to some customers that the sediment is a perfectly natural, and harmless, by-product of the wine. In the world of wine service, “bad” usually means that the wine is: 䡲

Oxidized: Oxygen has gotten into the bottle, and the wine has become musty or even vinegary. Oxidized wine looks like air has gotten to it. The color appears dull or brownish, and sometimes the wine smells like dried apples or prunes instead of fresh grapes. This is different from wine that is old. Oxidized wine is going bad or has already gone bad. Corked: When a wine is corked, it contains trichloroanisole (TCA), a harmless but smelly combination of mold, chlorine, and moisture (see Chapter 6). TCA can impart a moldy, unpleasant taste to the wine. Some people describe it as “wet cardboard,” “wet newspaper,” or worse. Maderized: This term is not heard as often, but it refers to the fact that a wine smells overly sweet, like a Madeira (hence the name) or port, when it is not supposed to. Wine that has been exposed to heat or otherwise improperly stored can become maderized.

In these cases, the wine can taste “just a little bit off ” or be absolutely terrible. If the customer is insistent, you might as well offer to replace the bottle. If the customer mentions a possible problem but isn’t quite sure, the bar or restaurant owner, the manager, or the sommelier should be summoned to taste the wine and to resolve the problem.

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WINE STORAGE We’ve already discussed not storing wine in a kitchen or other warm area. Unless it is sake, the Japanese rice wine, you don’t want to serve wine warm. In addition, high temperatures can prompt wine to mature faster or cause the problems that you just read about. The idea is to keep the wine at a steady, somewhat cool temperature, and away from sunlight or ultraviolet light, which also ages it more quickly. Depending on your storage capacity and the size and value of your wine inventory (rare wines versus jug wines), it might be sufficient to store the wine in the cardboard case it comes in. If you do not stack the cases very high on top of each other, you can lay them on their sides. Otherwise, you can store them with the bottles upside down. This keeps the corks moist and well sealed. Use a thick marking pen to label each case with the bin number, and try to keep the cases stored in numerical order so that it will be easy for servers to find them quickly. Unless your establishment is an elegant, fine-dining place or a wine bar known for its wide and exotic selection, you won’t need long-term, temperature- and humidity-controlled wine-cellar capacity. (If you do have these special storage needs, you should consult with a wine expert before building or equipping such a space.) More likely your goal is to turn over your inventory regularly and not tie up thousands of dollars of capital in a back room. Do you want customers to be able to see your wine investment? If so, you might think of ways to incorporate wine storage into your décor, such as placing a floorto-ceiling wine rack along one wall, with a sturdy, attractive, and movable ladder for fetching bottles near the top; or building a wine cellar that is also a private dining area for special parties and tastings. You could also have a room specially insulated and air conditioned by a contractor who has experience building such spaces. Commercially made wine-storage cabinets are also available, from those with capacities that hold a dozen bottles, to those that look like rooms themselves, with separate temperature and humidity controls, as in cigar humidors. Bar and restaurant suppliers sometimes sell these cabinets; there are also a number of well-known wine accessory companies with websites and mail-order catalogs from which you can order. These cabinets come with lots of attractive options, including locking doors, movable shelves, and decorative finishes. Just be sure to check with professionals about your electrical capacity and venting requirements before you buy.

By-the-Glass Storage The more wines you serve by the glass (BTG), the greater your need for individual bottle storage. The goal is to keep oxygen out of the bottle between pours, even when it is partially empty. Here is a brief summary of how they work: 䡲

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For just a few bottles, it is easy to purchase rubber stoppers that have a one-way valve on the top. Place the stopper on the bottle, then use a hand-pump vacuum sealer to get the air out. The vacuum sealer is made of plastic and fits on top of the stopper. You pump the sealer up and down a few times, until it starts to resist

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WINE LIST FOLLOW-UP

your hand pressure. This means that the oxygen has been removed from the bottle and that it is sealed until you remove the stopper again. These stoppers enable you to keep wine for two or three days after opening with no loss of quality. Vacuvin (VAK-yoo-van), the most popular brand, also has stoppers designed for sparkling wines (see Figure 7.12). These stoppers are secure enough to store the wines lying down instead of upright. You can buy these stoppers at kitchen stores, department stores, in wine shops, and by mail order. Wine specialty catalogs sell cans of inert gas that can be used in a similar fashion. No need for a stopper; simply insert the tiny nozzle into the open wine bottle, squirt the nozzle for one second, and immediately reseal the bottle with its original cork. The gas displaces any oxygen in the bottle. For more expensive BTG wines, the inert gas is a little more effective than the vacuum-sealer method. WineSaver and Private Preserve are a couple of the popular brand names. Cruvinet (CROO-vin-ay) is the best-known brand of refrigerated cabinet for storing and dispensing BTG wines. Stainless-steel tubing connects the bottles to faucets (taps), and inert gas instantly replaces the wine that is dispensed from the bottle. The cabinets come in a variety of sizes and designs and can be incorporated into backbar décor.

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FIGURE 7.12 Vacuvin wine saver. Courtesy of Co-Rect Products, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.

WINE LIST FOLLOW-UP A book of this scope cannot hope to treat the subject of wine in any depth. Similarly, a restaurant or bar that is just beginning to add wine service should not attempt to handle wines for connoisseurs. But by all means—serve wines! Wine by the glass or carafe is easy to sell and can be very profitable. A modest wine list of two or three wines of each type can also be very successful if the wines are of general appeal, the list is informative, the servers are well informed and helpful, and the whole endeavor is well organized. The most important effort you can make to boost your profit and satisfy your customers is to commit to regularly researching and revising your wine-sales program. It is not difficult to track wine sales, but you must keep up with them. Find out how much wine is sold per person: divide the total number of customers by the total number of bottles sold. This includes bottles used for BTG sales. For the number of glasses sold, divide this total by 5 (since, as you now know, there are five glasses in the average 750-ml wine bottle). Track wine sales by color or type: Do you sell more red or white? If so, by how much? Do you sell more Californian or European wines? Perhaps you need to adjust your list accordingly. Ask servers or bartenders to make a note of any wines that customers request but that you don’t have; you might notice a pattern. Inventory the wines regularly to see what sells the most and what just sits around. Close out the slow-moving wines by putting them on special or selling them BTG. Finally keep track of the wines by price. What is the average price of a bottle sold in a given time period? If your customers seem to order mostly the bargains, you’ll want to expand that part of the list and stock fewer of the high-dollar bottles.

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SUMMING UP Tasting wine involves much more than sipping it. You should look at the wine, swirl it inside the glass, and smell it. The tasting process, and the characteristics you’re looking for when you swirl, sniff and sip, are detailed in this chapter. Any bar or restaurant business should decide whether to serve wine and how extensive to make its selection with four major factors in mind: clientele, concept, cuisine, and price compatibility. Dozens of other decisions, from which types of glasses to buy to how the wines are priced, will be based on at least one of these four factors. Additionally, the business owner must decide how much inventory must be held in storage. This is not only a financial decision but also a matter of available space for storing wines at the correct (cool) temperatures and keeping open, partial bottles from deteriorating. Your wine list will do as much as anything to sell the products that appear on it, so this chapter contains guidelines for making a wine list interesting and informative. Wines sell better when the list contains a brief description of each and, perhaps, a suggestion of which foods it complements. The long-held rule for pricing wines has changed. The standard markup of 2.5 is ignored by many bars and restaurants today; their owners claim to sell more wine when they offer it at prices that are slightly below market. Of course, rare or prestigious vintages warrant a higher profit margin and the norms do not always apply. The other change in recent years is the standard pour, the amount of wine served when a customer orders it by the glass. It has been reduced from 6 or 7 ounces to 5 ounces, partly as a response to responsible beverage service cautions and partly to squeeze more profit out of every bottle served. A 5-ounce standard pour allows the bar to get five glasses out of a 750-ml wine bottle rather than four. An innovative BTG program is an excellent way to test new wines for your list, to serve some of the more expensive ones or close out slow-selling wines, and to prompt people to buy wine or try a new product without having to purchase a full bottle. Most customers will depend on their servers to be able to make a wine recommendation, so be sure that your staff members are well trained. Schedule regular training that includes tasting, comparisons, and discussion. Enlist the help of your suppliers, but don’t depend on them too heavily—and don’t use one supplier’s products exclusively. Every server should also know how to correctly open a wine bottle, as well as what to do if a cork breaks, if there is sediment in the wine, or if a customer sends back a “bad” bottle. There is a growing customer base of wine-knowledgeable people. Impress them with correct wine-name spellings, proper glassware, and servers who know the rules of wine etiquette.

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POINTS TO PONDER 1. List five major considerations you would address as a bar owner who decided that he or she needs to create a wine list. Include a brief description of their importance to your business. 2. Try writing a list of BTG wines for a local upscale bar. Explain your selections, including the number of wines you chose to put on the list. 3. What kinds of information, besides their names, should be included on a wine list to help sell the wines? 4. List five topics you should include in wine-training sessions for your servers. 5. Why do you swirl a wine before tasting it? 6. Why do you need different types of glasses to serve different types of wines? How few do you think an upscale bar could “get away with” having? Which wineglasses would those be, and why? 7. What do you do when you have broken a cork as you open a bottle of wine for guests? 8. Describe how you would price the items on your bar’s wine list, and explain why. 9. How do you decide when to decant a wine? 10. How do you determine how much wine your bar sells per customer, both by the bottle and by the glass?

TERMS OF THE TRADE aeration ah-so aroma augur balance bouquet bin number bowl breathing cage capsule cork retriever corked cruvinet decanting flute glycerin

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legs list mapping maderized oxidized (oxidation) Rabbit screw-pull (lever-pull) service napkin (serviette) sommelier standard pour structure table tent throw sediment waiter’s friend wine chiller wine flight wing worm

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A CONVERSATION WITH . . . KEVIN SETTLES Founder, Owner of Bardenay Restaurant and Distillery Boise, Idaho You might call Kevin Settles a modern-day pioneer. After falling in love with the business of spirit making (he started out making and selling hard cider), Settles wanted to take it up a notch. In 1999, he became the first entrepreneur in the United States to open a distillery that shared the same address as an upscale restaurant when Bardenay Restaurant and Distillery opened its doors in Boise, Idaho. Not only was the distillery on the premises, but the still itself, made and imported from Germany, was one of the most prominent features of the place, and still is. It sits in a trendy warehouse behind a floor-toceiling wall of glass in all its mesmerizing bronzed glory, looking like something out of a grown-up’s Willy Wonka dream. In 2000, the distillery began producing spirits—first, rum, followed by vodka and gin. Settles, who started the operations with a business partner on the restaurant side, bought that partner out in 2003 and has since opened two more Idaho locations, in Eagle and Coeur d’Alene. In addition, bottles of Bardenay brand rum, vodka, and gin are sold in Idaho state-run liquor stores. Q: How did you come up with the concept of opening a restaurant—and distillery? A: It was modeled to a certain extent on the brewpub concept. I figured

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if the beer guys could do it, why not distilled spirits? I spent three years reading tons of federal and state regulations, looking for legal reasons as to why a “distillery pub” was not allowed, and also ways to comply with the laws but still achieve my goal of having a distillery pub. While the federal government, through the BATF, had never allowed a distillery to operate in a public space, like a restaurant, I could not find any regulation that specifically prohibited it; it was just the way they chose to interpret the regulations. The state of Idaho, however, had regulations that specifically prohibited a manufacturer of distilled spirits from holding a liquorby-the-drink permit. Q: How did you get that changed? A: I hired a good lobbyist! I identified the changes to state law that would need to be made, and he helped craft the bill we would need to pass to make those changes. He also helped craft the message to convey to lawmakers, to convince them to vote for our bill. We told them that, if they passed it, we could sell liquor made in Idaho and provide jobs in Idaho. If they did not pass it, we could still open our bar/restaurant and sell liquor by the drink, but the liquor would be made in Kentucky. So, in the end, the legislators thought it made good sense to keep it in-state, to let the state and people of Idaho benefit from state taxes and Idaho jobs.

Q: Can you describe the spirits you make in the distilleries and the process and length of process for each? A: We make rum, gin, and vodka and they all start out the same. We use brown cane sugar as the initial ingredient, because cane sugar is required for making rum. Contrary to popular opinion, vodka does not have to be made from potatoes; it can be made from anything. We’re the first in the United States that I know of to make vodka with cane sugar, which creates a clean, smooth, slightly sweet vodka. The gin is essentially our vodka flavored with juniper and other botanicals. The process of making rum can be as short as two weeks; the gin process is the longest, at about threeand-a-half weeks. Vodka making falls in the middle. And, we now make a lemon vodka. We plan on making more variations, but it’s a pain. Each new recipe needs to be approved by the federal government—they call it “formula approval”—before you can produce it for public consumption. Once you have an approved formula, you then have to get your label approved by the same agency, the Tobacco, Tax & Trade Bureau (TTB). It can take a lot of time and be a frustrating process, especially if you are making a product the TTB is unfamiliar with, partly due to the bureaucracy and partly due to the growing industry. Ten years ago, there were maybe 20 small distillers or micro-distillers in the

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United States. Now, there are more than 200. Q: How does a working, on-site distillery impact the bar/ restaurant and vice versa? A: The distillery and the restaurant help each other. The distillery adds a point of interest to the bar. The restaurant, the food and beverage, give people a reason to come back time after time, even if they’re not there for the liquor. When we started, our rum, gin and vodka counted for about 20 percent of our hard liquor sales. Now, our own Bardenay liquors count for about 65 percent of our liquor sales, and 18 to 20 percent of our total sales. That is a pretty significant percentage of our total business. Our guests are paramount to the end result of our product; their tastes help guide us. For an example, when we first started making our vodka, if you paired it with cranberry juice for a Cosmopolitan, it was just horrible. We are a bit unusual in that we make all of our spirits from scratch—many supposed ‘craft distilleries’ actually get a spirit from someone else, tweak it a bit and call it their own. It took us nearly eight years to get the vodka we wanted from our still, and that was because of the hard work of Scott Probert, the guy who runs our distilleries today. When I first developed our techniques and recipes 10 years ago, they were based upon my best guesses. But from day one, we have always listened to our guests and made improvements as we could. Now, we’ll put our spirits in any cocktail. We are very proud of our spirits and of what we do. Q: What are some of the most important lessons you’ve learned? A: It really is all about the people, both customers and employees. It’s definitely not all about what I like. An example: at first, we wanted to make a flavorful, European-style

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vodka—but when we served it, our customers couldn’t send it back fast enough. They said, “No way!” It wasn’t what they were used to. I learn something new every day. From the distillery standpoint, the hardest thing to do is maintain quality. All shortcuts lead to problems. You have to be diligent and strict about everything, from the cleaning techniques to the operation of the still. Everything you do can impact the end product, and it can take months to find out. It can end up costing time and money. You have the same problem on the restaurant side. If you have a crummy server, you can overcome the damage, but it will take a while. There’s an old saying in the business: “Packaging outsells product.” But if the product doesn’t justify the packaging, you won’t make multiple sales. You don’t make money from a customer until they’ve been back three times. We also have a really great menu. But we don’t want to get stale, so we keep it fresh with our specials program. We have an aggressive lunch and dinner specials program. Our bartenders also are encouraged to come up with new drinks. We feature a few new drinks every month and, if they’re a big hit, they’ll stick around. While our primary focus is beverages, if you’re going to drink alcohol, you’d better eat, too. It’s the total experience that keeps people coming back and keeps our doors open. Q: What advice can you give to students who may want to follow in your entrepreneurial footsteps? A: Over the years, I’ve had people come here and say: “Oh, I want to do what you’re doing!” Rarely do they have the stick-to-it-ive-ness. Most don’t have the focus. Focus is the key. I didn’t do anything else; didn’t take vacations. But I really enjoyed doing it and still do. People get distracted. I don’t want to get distracted. I wanted a

distillery; I put it in a restaurant, so I could have a devoted customer base. We have good products, a good staff. My goal is to be successful. I’ll retire and I’ll still be successful when I do. Do your homework and know what you’re getting into—and it’s never going to be what you thought it was. You have to be willing to sit back and see where the holes are, what needs to be filled in. Then, you have to be willing to step up and do it. The point isn’t to make a lot of money. The point is to do a good job, and then you’ll make a lot of money. Part of our mission is to provide great products at a good price. We know where our pennies are spent. We stay focused. Q: What have been some of the biggest hurdles and challenges you’ve met in this business and how have you overcome them? A: The first challenge was to figure out how to work around and/ or with federal regulations. Once we secured a lease for the space, I began working to secure a DSP (distillery spirits plant) permit. You have to get a license to operate before you can even experiment, and you need to experiment to figure out your formulas, which you need for label approval, et cetera. To get the ball rolling, the space I used to get the license was actually an old ladies restroom! It was in a portion of the building that would eventually house Bardenay, but would not be part of the restaurant or distillery once we were up and running. During the application process, I called to see how it was going and was told: “It’s going to take forever.” But I had done my homework and made sure the application was in order. There can be up to 30 pages of corrections to some applications, but my reviewing agent only had three questions and we were able to go over them by phone. Because I had made the agent’s job easy, I developed an ally—and that made all

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the difference in getting permission to relocate inside the restaurant. Even though we were only moving the distillery about 30 feet, we had to reapply! Fortunately, the reviewing agent was the same one who had worked on the original application. She let me explain why I felt the move should be allowed and pushed my application outside the normal process. In the end, it went all the way to the BATF legal department in Washington, DC, and—after a few extended conversations—they decided to allow the move. The permit process took five to six months, total. Then, we had to get our formula approved. It was originally turned down because they’d never seen a recipe using brown cane sugar. They sent it back and said it had to be just cane sugar. I sent it back to them after I underlined the words: brown cane sugar. All that took a couple more months.

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Since that initial set of hurdles, the challenges include: staying successful with a combined restaurant, bar and distillery business, and, when you work with people, you are constantly challenged. You want to maintain consistency and product from the distilleries. You are challenged daily with variables such as the economy on the restaurant and bar side. And, you have to make sure your total quality doesn’t slip. If you’re not paying attention, you’ll find quality will creep—and usually it will decline, not improve. With the most recent recession, all three of our locations were impacted in a different manner. Our Boise location remained virtually undamaged; it stayed profitable and worked well. Eagle, our easiest to run before, saw a decline. It dropped off a little over 15 percent. We really had periods where we didn’t know where we were going

to go. The Coeur d’Alene location opened just as the economy tanked. It dropped in sales immediately and stayed that way for a long time, but it is now growing faster than the other locations. Customer service is allimportant, and learning how to manage the cyclical nature of the business is the art to staying in business. We just celebrated our 10th anniversary. Whether your goal is to have a small distillery or a restaurant, especially if you don’t know those businesses, find a good partner. And, you really have to remember: it’s the hospitality business. People aren’t coming in because they think you’re a genius or you’ve got great taste. They come in for a good time. If they come in time and time again and have a good time, they’ll go out and promote your products.

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CHAPTER 8

BEER

A

mericans love their beer. A Mintel 2009 survey reconfirms it: More adults report drinking beer at home (46%), in restaurants (27%), and in bars (26%) than any other alcoholic beverage. The beer-making business has grown impressively, changing considerably in the last 50 years. In 1977, there were 50 brewers in America; today there are more than 1,500. From Portland, Oregon, to Asheville, North Carolina, cities and towns with craft breweries are touting themselves as vacation destinations. Add the imported products now available from dozens of other beer-producing nations, and thirsty U.S. customers have thousands of brands and brews to choose from. However, while consumers’ tastes are becoming more sophisticated as they frequent brewpubs, sample the world’s beer offerings, and even brew their own beers, they also are prey to such powerful market forces as inflation, unemployment, and stock market fluctuations. In early 2009, beer sales in the U.S. were down 4 percent over the same time period in 2008, and more people chose to purchase less expensive, American-made brands over imports. Despite the multimillion-dollar advertising blitzes of the big brewers, most U.S. breweries are small businesses with average production of about 1,200 barrels a year. Those that have done well financially generally have found their own regional niches and/or have been willing to adapt to formidable market trends. For example, beer is subject to the same global forces that are changing the wine and spirits industries, as the costs of raw materials and transportation climb. Large brewers face an onslaught of foreign competition and, in some cases, U.S. breweries have joined forces with former competitors to create international brewing and import/export conglomerates. For the individual bar owner, selling and serving beer profitably means developing a plan to do so. As with wine, to give the customers what they want, you have to learn a great deal more about the broad topic of beer, including lagers, ales, porters, stouts, microbrews, and so on. You should know how beer is made and stored, and the right ways to serve it. Many bars and restaurants have beer lists as well as wine lists, so how do you decide which ones to stock? This chapter answers questions about almost every facet of brewing, including the various styles of beer and how to sell and serve them.

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THIS CHAPTER WILL HELP YOU . . . 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲 䡲

Understand the market trends affecting today’s brewing industry. Learn how beer is made and the role of each of its ingredients. Recognize and describe the various types and styles of beer. Learn how to take proper care of a draft-beer system and why each step is important. Learn to properly store canned and bottled beer. Correctly choose and clean beer glasses. Sell beer profitably in a bar or restaurant setting. Train and motivate staff members to sell beer.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF BEER Human beings might have been making grain into beer even before they were baking it into bread. But whichever came first, beer and bread together constituted the principal items of the ordinary family diet for centuries. Noah took beer onto the ark. The Egyptians were the first to record their brewing process; they made beer from corn and passed their techniques on to the Greeks. Beer played an important role in these ancient cultures. It was thought to have medicinal properties, and many “prescriptions” included beer. Its use was taken seriously enough that a young Egyptian man would not offer a young woman a sip of his beer unless he intended to marry her! By the late 1300s, beer was the national drink of England. Both nobility and common folk enjoyed its refreshing qualities, and Queen Elizabeth I reportedly had a potent ale for breakfast instead of juice. Primitive peoples derived much of their body fuel from the carbohydrates and alcohol in beer. Columbus found Native Americans making a beer from corn and the sap of the black birch tree. Hard-working English and Dutch colonists could not have survived without beer and made their own. The first colony to mount a regular brewing operation was Sir Walter Raleigh’s Roanoke, Virginia, in 1587. But requests were made for imports from England, and in 1607 the first shipment was exported to the colonies. Unfortunately for those who ordered it, the crew drank most of the beer before it arrived, so it is perhaps not surprising that in 1609 colonists placed the first “Help Wanted” advertisement in a London newspaper, looking for brewers to relocate to America. Brewers were considered artisans. Many of our famous forefathers had their own special beer recipes. George Washington had a private brewhouse; both Samuel Adams and William Penn operated commercial breweries. Thomas Jefferson was a beer aficionado, brewing at Monticello and collecting every book that he could find on the subject. Each soldier in Washington’s army received a quart of beer a day. It was often safer to drink beer than water, and it offered nutrients and carbohydrates. In 1789, the Massachusetts legislature passed an act to encourage the manufacture of “strong beer, ale, and other malted liquors . . . [their] wholesome qualities greatly recommend them to general use as an important means of preserving the health of the citizens of the commonwealth.”

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It was not until the nineteenth century that the U.S. brewing industry began in earnest, when German immigrants brought European brewing techniques and beerdrinking customs to the United States. The art of brewing beer had made a major leap forward as a result of Louis Pasteur’s experiments with yeasts. Not only did he unravel the mysteries of fermentation, he developed the technique of sterilizing through pasteurization. The process was used to stabilize beer 22 years before it was applied to milk. Before that time beer, could not be stored safely for long periods of time without showing signs of spoilage. By the late nineteenth century, beer was sharing the limelight with Bourbon in the old-time saloons. The excesses of both the beverage industry and the individual drinker during this time brought about Prohibition. Today, the United States is undergoing a beer renaissance of sorts, which recaptures the period in European history when local breweries were valued community businesses, and the corner tavern was the favorite gathering place for news, dinner, entertainment, and spirited political debate. Whether beer is shared with friends, good food, and/or good conversation, Americans today are not only drinking beer more responsibly, they are learning (and caring) more about what they are drinking. A growing population is experimenting with home brewing, and buying, sampling, and cooking with beers. Two terms you will hear in conjunction with beer sales today are on-premise and offpremise. On-premise sale means beer that is sold and consumed on the same site. When you buy a beer at a bar or restaurant, this is an on-premise sale. When you buy beer at a grocery or convenience store to drink someplace else, this is an off-premise sale.

Starting Small: Craft Beers Although the giant commercial breweries still control the lion’s share of the beer market in the United States, the craft-brewing aspect of the industry is booming. Today’s consumer is willing to experiment with new and different products, is willing to pay a higher price for them, and may well be more sophisticated than the prototypical beer drinker of years past. In contrast to the standard U.S. beers and many of the imports, hand-crafted brands are typically rich, hearty, colorful, aromatic brews that range from European-style beers to specialties developed by the individual brewer. While the national giants are locked into their own formulas and images, most craft brewers have tried to capitalize on niche markets, by introducing fuller-flavored products or purchasing or contracting with smaller breweries to sell their specialty beers. Domestic craft-beer sales have topped 8 million barrels per year in the United States, up almost 10 percent in 2009, even as overall U.S. beer sales were down slightly. The Brewers Association divides the craft-brewer category into several subcategories, as follows. We’ve added their numbers in the United States, as of mid-2009: 䡲

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A microbrewery is defined as one that produces fewer than 15,000 barrels of beer per year and sells 75 percent or more of its beer off-site. (In the beer business, a barrel contains 31 gallons.) There are 456 microbreweries in the U.S. A brewpub is a combination restaurant and brewery that sells 25 percent or more of its own beer on-premise, with food. (A typical sales split is 70 percent food/30 percent beer.) Some brewpubs make enough beer to package it for sale elsewhere,

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such as in regional supermarkets, to build the brand name. In these cases if a brewpub’s off-premise sales exceed 75 percent of its total sales, it is reclassified as a microbrewery. There are 962 brewpubs in the U.S. A regional brewery has annual beer production of between 15,000 and 2 million barrels. Regional, in this case, refers only to its overall output, not its area of distribution. Some regional breweries are hired as contract brewers to make and market other private-label brands for brewpubs. (The Brewers Association does not provide a specific number of these.) A regional craft brewery (in the wording of the Brewers Association) is “an independent regional brewery with either an all-malt flagship or at least 50 percent of its volume in either all-malt beers or beers which use adjuncts to enhance flavor rather than lighten flavor.” There are 64 of these in the U.S.

The craft-brewing market experienced its first growth surge in the early to mid1990s. More brewpubs opened in 1996 than any other single year. Soon after, in 1998, more brewpubs closed than in any other year. Industry observers cited their fad-like popularity for people jumping into the brewpub business unprepared for the financial rigors of building a regional following. So today, many craft brewers have simply skipped the foodservice component and dived strictly into the business of making beer. By 2003, craft-beer sales in the United States began growing at a faster pace than imported beer sales. By 2008, 37 of the top 50 brewing companies were independent craft brewers.

FIGURE 8.1 Toasting the success of the microbrew industry at a Denver brewpub.

Photo

by Richard Grant; courtesy of Denver Metro Conventions and Visitors Bureau.

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TOP TEN CRAFT BREWING COMPANIES (by beer sales volume, based on 2008 sales) RANK 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

COMPANY

LOCATION

Boston Beer Co. Sierra Nevada Brewing Co. New Belgium Brewing Co. Spoetzl Brewery Pyramid Breweries, Inc. Deschutes Brewery Matt Brewing Co. Boulevard Brewing Co. Full Sail Brewing Co. Magic Hat Brewing Co.

Boston, Mass. Chico, Calif. Fort Collins, Colo. Shiner, Texas Seattle, Wash. Bend, Ore. Utica, N. Y. Kansas City, Mo. Hood River, Ore. Burlington, Vt.

TOP TEN OVERALL BREWING COMPANIES (by beer sales volume, based on 2008 sales) RANK 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

COMPANY

LOCATION

Anheuser-Busch InBev MillerCoors Brewing Co. Pabst Brewing Co. Boston Beer Co. D.G. Yuengling and Son, Inc. Sierra Nevada Brewing Co. Craft Brewers Alliance, Inc. New Belgium Brewing Co. High Falls Brewing Co. Spoetzl Brewery

St. Louis, Mo. Chicago, Ill. Woodridge, Ill. Boston, Mass. Pottsville, Penn. Chico, Calif. Portland, Ore. Fort Collins, Colo. Rochester, N. Y. Shiner, Texas

Source: The Brewers Association, Boulder, Colorado, April 13, 2009.

FIGURE 8.2

Beer Wars: The Macrobreweries A macrobrewery is a large, national or international beer-manufacturing conglomerate with multiple locations and an output of more than 500,000 barrels annually. These companies are also called mass-market brewers. Consolidation has been the keyword for major breweries, with competition and alliances, feuds, and buyouts that rival anything on a television soap opera. Following in the footsteps of their counterparts in many other industries, bigger breweries have snapped up smaller ones or forged partnerships in other countries to create global

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ANHEUSER-BUSCH BRANDS

MILLERCOORS BRANDS

Budweiser, Bud Light, and related line extensions (Bud Lime, Budweiser Select, Bud Dry, Bud Ice, Budweiser American Ale, etc.)

Miller Genuine Draft, Miller Lite, and related line extensions (Miller Chill, Miller High Life)

Budweiser & Clamato Chelada (also a Lite version)

Grolsch

Busch, Busch Light, Busch Ice Natural Light, Natural Ice Michelob, Michelob Light, and related line extensions (Honey Lager, Amber Bock, Porter, Shock Top, etc.) Michelob ULTRA and related line extensions (Lime Cactus, Pomegranate Raspberry, etc.) Specialty Beers (Redbridge, Rolling Rock, Rock Light, Wild Blue, etc.) O’Doul’s, O’Doul’s Amber

Pilsner Urquell Milwaukee’s Best Olde English 800 Castle Lager and related line extensions (Castle Lite, Castle Milk Stout) Foster’s Lager Snow Numerous Latin American beers (Aguila, Atlas, Balboa, Club Colombia, Pilsen Callao, Pilsener, Golden Light, Poker, Port Royal, Salva Vida, etc.) Peroni Nastro Azzurro

FIGURE 8.3 Partial lists of major beer brands owned and/or marketed by Anheuser-Busch InBev and MillerCoors.

beer-making empires. The biggest of these acquisitions to date is the 2008 sale of venerable St. Louis–based Anheuser-Busch to the Belgian-Brazilian giant InBev for almost $52 billion. (InBev was created in 2004, when Belgium’s Interbrew purchased Brazil’s AmBev to create the world’s largest brewing company in terms of volume produced.) The controversial and contentious Anheuser-Busch buyout resulted in layoffs of thousands of employees and contractors, whittling of worker and retiree benefits, closures of can and lid-making plants, sales of some brewery facilities, and strict curtailment of the generous corporate citizenship for which the Busch family had been known for years. The new company, Anheuser-Busch InBev, is known thus far for its apparently single-minded focus on the bottom line. By August 2009, a year in which beer sales were dropping, the company announced that its net profit for the second quarter of that year had risen 28 percent, citing “cost reductions” as the reason. The year 2002 had previously been the flashpoint for beer-making mergers. Colorado-based Coors Brewing Company purchased Britain’s Carlin Brewing Company for $1.7 billion. A few months later, South African Breweries, Ltd., spent $5.6 million to buy Miller Brewing Company, makers of Miller and Miller Lite beers. (The seller was the Altria Group, known primarily for tobacco products, which

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retains partial ownership.) SABMiller, PLC, as the new company was christened, rocketed to the number two spot in terms of sales volume with well over 100 brands. In 2003, SABMiller also acquired Peroni, which controls about 25 percent of the Italian beer market. In 2005, it bought Bavaria, S.A., the second-largest brewer in South America, with flagship brands Aguila and Club Colombia. In 2007, it bought Royal Grolsch. Outside the U.S., SABMiller is best known as a major bottler of both Coca-Cola and beer. In 2004, Coors was on the move again, announcing a joint venture with Canada’s Molson, Inc. The resulting Molson Coors Brewing Company is the fifth-largest macrobrewery in the world. Both companies’ products have been handled by the same distributors in most markets, and this “merger of equals” also opened a new door for Coors because Molson, Inc., owns 80 percent of Cervejaria Kaiser, Brazil’s third-largest brewer. Brazil is a hot market, rivaling Germany for beer sales volume. Brahma Chopp, the top Brazilian beer, is one of the world’s bestselling brands. Fast-forward to 2007, when SABMiller and Molson Coors announced a joint venture, MillerCoors, made specifically to better compete in the U.S. against AnheuserBusch, even before its acquisition by InBev. MillerCoors officially opened on July 1, 2008, and built a new headquarters in Chicago, Illinois, which opened one year later. As their empires grow, expect these multinational brewers to challenge each other time and again. In China, for example, SABMiller owned a portion of Harbin Brewery Group (China’s fourth largest), but gave it up less than a year later when Anheuser-Busch offered to pay a higher price for it than SABMiller. SABMiller already owns 32 other Chinese breweries through China Resources Breweries; A-B operates 14 Chinese breweries at this writing. With its enormous population, China is considered a hot spot for brewers who want to increase their sales volume, although the U.S. Commerce Department notes that Chinese consumers are very price-conscious and seem most interested in the bargain macrobrews. Neighboring Japan has chosen to cultivate Russia as an export market instead, where the lighter style (with fewer calories than vodka) has become popular. By the time you read this, numerous other chess-style moves will have been completed by the beer giants.

Trends in the Domestic Beer Market Until the advent of globalization, the chief difference between the giant U.S. beer makers and their foreign counterparts was that the Americans sold mostly domestically, earning only a fraction of their income from overseas sales. Their international competitors were busy exporting their products. For example, Heineken, which is from the Netherlands, is sold in more than 170 markets worldwide, with international sales accounting for 90 percent of its total volume. Similarly, Guinness sells 84 percent of its beer outside Ireland and has licensed bottlers in more than 50 countries to make it. (In 2009, incidentally, Guinness celebrated its 250th birthday with a limited edition “250 Anniversary Stout.”)

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U.S.-based breweries have spent their time and effort building and maintaining strong brand loyalty among American consumers. They’ve focused on light beers and low-carb beers, courting the calorie-counting customer and turning out clever advertising campaigns. (Later in this chapter, we’ll explain what makes beers light and/or low-carb.) The segments that continue to experience growth in an otherwise flat industry are the light beers and craft beers, a testament to the following consumer trends: 䡲

Light beers now make up almost half of all beers consumed in the United States, and six of the top ten bestselling beers in America are light brands. Health consciousness and an increased desire for physical fitness have prompted beer drinkers to choose a brew with fewer calories rather than to skip the beer altogether. (Ironically, the healthy image of light beer might encourage people to drink more of it—e.g., two light beers instead of a single, regular beer, which negates its lower-calorie advantage.) The popularity of Mexican beer has resulted in American-made “knockoffs” that appear to be selling well. These include Miller Chill, typically served with lime and salt; and Bud Light Lime. Beer is getting formidable competition from wine and spirits producers, especially in terms of advertising to younger consumers. Health headlines touting the benefits of moderate wine consumption have prompted more middle- and upperincome consumers to buy wine instead of beer. When Barack Obama was elected U.S. president in 2008, wine aficionados pointed to his 1,000-bottle personal wine cellar as further proof that wine sales would soon outpace beer.

Americans’ beer-drinking habits also show a distinct seasonal pattern, picking up in June, July, and August. Three holidays, Memorial Day, Independence Day, and Labor Day, account for almost 20 percent of all U.S. beer consumption. An amusing term for macrobrewers’ mainstream product lines now appears on brewpub menus: lawnmower beers (as in, the type of beer you’d quaff strictly for thirst quenching while mowing the yard!). Perhaps the most remarkable macrobrewed success story is that of Bud Light, the light-beer brand of Anheuser-Busch InBev. In 2001, Bud Light surpassed sales of Budweiser, its “parent” beer, for the first time, with volumes of 33.6 billion barrels and 32.5 billion barrels respectively. Bud Light sells more than twice as much as Miller Lite, its nearest mega-brewer competitor; Coors Light is a distant third. The key to Bud Light’s success, other than having fewer calories, has been its advertising team’s ability to consistently portray the brand as fun, young, and social. Years of double-digit sales increases for Bud Light now mean that more people drink it than drink all wines, all distilled spirits, and all malternatives (other malt-based beverages) and hard ciders combined. Generally, beer advertising implies that brewers believe that there is no better way to get a customer excited about their product than to show people having a good time while drinking it. To reinforce their fun and lively brand images, U.S. macrobreweries spend millions of dollars for sponsorships to align themselves closely with big events—which is called event marketing—in sports, comedy, music, and other forms of entertainment. In particular there are longstanding connections to sporting events, especially football and baseball. Almost 80 percent of all beer sold at major sports

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stadiums and arenas is made by either Anheuser-Busch InBev or MillerCoors, but, in some markets, concessionaires are presenting a greater variety of crowd-pleasing alternatives from other countries. The trend toward responsible-service training now includes professional sports. The TEAM Coalition (Techniques for Effective Alcohol Management) is, according to its website (teamcoalition.org) “an alliance of professional and collegiate sports, entertainment facilities, concessionaires, stadium service providers, the beer industry, broadcasters, governmental traffic safety experts, and others working together to promote responsible drinking and positive fan behavior at sports and entertainment facilities.” The final trend to watch in the beer industry is the persistent suggestion in Congress that beer taxes be increased—from their current level of 33 cents per six-pack to 48 cents per six-pack—to help fund the massive health care reform efforts under way in the United States. Beer isn’t the only beverage that could be tapped, to so speak, to raise additional revenue for the federal coffers—wine, liquor, and even (nondiet) soft drinks could be taxed as well, for their roles in so-called “lifestyle choices” that contribute to rising medical costs.

The Global Import/Export Market Imported beers continue to arrive in the United States from distant shores and from just across the borders, although the economic downturn in 2008 prompted the first drop in imported beer shipments since 1991, down about 3.4 percent. The same year, federal excise taxes on beer increased, contributing to the slump. By early 2009, there was almost 14 percent less beer coming into the United States from Mexico, its top supplier, and 26 percent less from the Netherlands, which holds the number two spot for beer imports into the U.S. Together, Corona and Heineken account for almost half of the beer imported into the U.S. In Mexico, there are two giant brewing empires: Grupo Modelo, which exports the Corona, Negra Modelo, and Pacifico brands, and Femsa Cerveza, which exports Tecaté, Dos Equis, and Sol. Both companies have made major marketing changes to increase sales. In 2006, Grupo Modelo joined with one of its American distributors, Barton Beers (a division of Constellation Brands), to form Crown Imports. And in 2005, Tecaté became part of the Heineken portfolio. Canadian beers also have loyal U.S. fans, and just over 11 percent of the beer imported into the U.S. is from Canada. The top sellers are beers from Labatt, Molson, and Moosehead. (Labatt brews 60 beers and is the contract brewer for Budweiser in Canada.) On their home turf, Canadian brewers contend with the same challenges as American brewers, with an influx of upscale imported beers and more brands vying for consumers’ attention. The dominance of China on the world scene has reached the beer market, too. In 2009, the Chinese-made beer Snow surpassed Bud Light to become the world’s topselling beer in terms of volume. Like any proud parent, Anheuser-Busch InBev was quick to point out that Snow is “a family of beer brands that includes at least 25 extensions,” so technically, it says, Bud Light is still number one. Rounding out the top five for international volume were Budweiser, Skol (InBev’s Brazilian beer), and Corona.

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Brews from other Asian countries also are being poured and enjoyed with the foods of their native lands in many ethnic restaurants in the United States. Perhaps you will recognize one or more of their names: Sapporo (Japan), Singha (Thailand), San Miguel (Phillipines), OB (South Korea), and Hue Lager (Vietnam). They are listed in order of their sales success; at this time, Sapporo leads the pack, but the top three Japanese imports to the United States—Sapporo, Kirin, and Asahi—are extremely competitive, partnering with North American macrobreweries to make their products more readily available. Today, Kirin is brewed by Anheuser-Busch InBev, and SABMiller brews Asahi. American consumers are also showing some preliminary interest in Spanish beers, which were seldom seen in the United States until recently. Spain is the European Union’s third-largest beer producer (behind England and Germany), with 20 national brands. Major Spanish breweries include Cruzcampo, Damm, El Aquila, and Mahoo. Of course, globalization means that it has become more difficult to determine which beers are truly imports. After all, if a Japanese brewery purchases or licenses a brewery in Los Angeles to make its products stateside, is the beer Japanese or American? Furthermore, does it really matter to the consumer? The alliances between large breweries to make each other’s products in different countries make it less expensive to transport the finished products. This is no small matter, since beer is heavy, at least somewhat fragile and perishable, and expensive to ship. In addition, the alcohol-related laws that govern shipping vary drastically between countries. The areas to which U.S. breweries export the most beer are Mexico (30 percent) and Canada (25 percent); the number three spot is shared by the Dominican Republic, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, with 6 percent each.

BEER-MAKING BASICS The term beer refers generically to ales, lagers, pilsners, and stouts, all of which are made from water, malted grain (usually barley), hops, and yeast. In fact, the U.S. Standard of Identity uses the term malt beverage rather than beer, defining it as “a beverage made by the alcoholic fermentation . . . in potable brewing water, of malted barley with hops,” with or without various commonly used ingredients, such as malted or unmalted cereals, and carbon dioxide (CO2). Federal regulations also define beer’s minimum alcohol content as ½ of 1 percent by volume. The maximum content is not defined; this is a matter for state law, which varies from state to state. It may seem ironic that while federal regulations require alcohol content to be shown on a wine label, they prohibit this information from appearing on beer labels, except where state laws require it. This is why some brewers make the same beer in different “strengths,” to meet different state requirements. In the United States, a beer’s alcohol content is usually quoted as a percentage by weight; in Canada, it is shown as a percentage by volume. Therefore, a 3.2- percent beer and a 5-percent beer cannot be compared unless they are expressed in the same terms. For example a 4-percent beer by weight is 5 percent alcohol by volume, while

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a 4-percent beer by volume is 3.2 percent alcohol by weight. These differences are small and probably would not affect taste, but you would be able to taste the difference between a 3.2 percent beer and a 5-percent beer by weight (4 and 6.25 percent by volume, respectively). The alcohol content of beers is roughly one third to onehalf that of wine, but when average servings of the two beverages are compared, the content is not very different (as you can see by referring back to Figure 5.5).

Raw Ingredients “What’s so great about beer is that you have this range,” says Randy Mosher, author of Tasting Beer: An Insider’s Guide to the World’s Best Drink. “It’s from 3 percent alcohol to 20 percent, from super malty to very hoppy; and then you throw in stuff like fruit, spices—and you have an enormous range of possibilities.” Depending on the type or style of beer being made, the brewer will use different strains of yeast, as well as somewhat different methods of fermentation. In spite of these differences, which you will learn about in this chapter, the basics of production are the same for both beers and ales. First consider each of the raw ingredients in beer: water, malt, hops, and yeast. In the United States there is often a fifth ingredient: another cereal in addition to the malt, called a malt adjunct or grain adjunct. Variations in the character of each ingredient are important to the final product.

Water. Beer is nine-tenths water, so water quality is a critical factor in beer production. The various beer styles were originally derived from the rock on which their breweries sat. Molson-Coors emphasizes its use of “Rocky Mountain spring water,” for instance, and this is not just advertising hype: It is essential to the taste of Coorsbrand beer. Some waters are suitable for ale but not for beer, and vice versa. Standard American tap water, for instance, is treated with chlorine or fluoride and hence is not suitable for brewing without being boiled or filtered first. Hard water is not good for making certain styles of beer, so brewers must know the characteristics of their water supply in advance. The term pH is used to describe the amount of acidity in water, expressed on a scale of 1 to 14. A low number indicates high acidity, 7 is “neutral,” and numbers higher than 7 indicate low acidity. The best brewing conditions for beer include water at a pH level between 5.0 and 5.8. Lower pH levels are good for beer of lighter colors. The minerals in water, of course, also contribute to the taste of the beer. Many brewers modify their water—by adding mineral salts, for instance—to create a successful, standardized product.

Malt. Malt is the word for barley that has been placed in water, allowed to begin to sprout, then dried to stop germination. Barley is the third major feed-grain crop grown in the United States, and there are three types: two-row, four-row, and six-row, referring to the numbers of kernel rows on the head of the stalk. Six-row barley is the type used by most mass-market brewers. It is less expensive and generally not as flavorful as two-row barley. Two-row barley is lower in protein and higher in enzymes,

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WATER QUALITY AND BEER QUALITY: A QUICK EUROPEAN TOUR Knowledge of water quality—including such factors as pH values and mineral content—is essential in beer making. It allows brewers to enhance, or overcome, these factors as needed. It also enables brewers to compensate for year-toyear variations in barley and hops crops, to ensure production of consistent beers. 䡲

In nineteenth-century commercial brewing operations in Europe, brewmasters discovered that their products spoiled easily, with notable exceptions. One of these, the British town of Burton-on-Trent, had 30 breweries producing pale ale (also called English bitter). The area soil was rich in minerals, including gypsum, and the water had a pH of 5 to 5.5, ideal for mashing, which is the step that extracts natural sugars from malting barley. The Burton-onTrent water supply was also high in sulfates, which act as preservatives. The resulting brew could be shipped to distant locations, including colonial India. Thus, the Burton-on-Trent beers became known as India Pale Ales, or IPA for short. Today any brewer can produce an IPA-style beer by adding minerals, a step sometimes known as burtonizing the water. The Czech Republic town of Pilsen became a noted producer of lagers, and again geology played a central role. Pilsen well water is drawn

from underground deposits of metamorphic rocks, which are created by high pressure and heat and are almost impermeable. The water is in constant contact with these rocks but draws no minerals from them. Although the water’s pH is in the desired range for effective mashing of barley, its lack of mineral content is what distinguishes the finished Pilsen beer, giving it a clean, light taste. The story is different in Munich, Germany, where the natural water supply is overly alkaline, and German law forbids brewers from chemically altering it. Instead, they roast the malt a little before mashing. This releases natural phosphates from the barley. The phosphates increase its acidity, which, combined with water, results in a mash that is in the correct pH range. It also results in a dark beer with a distinctly different taste because of this process. In Ireland, groundwater in the Dublin area sits on limestone, which makes it even more alkaline than Munich’s water. This requires even more roasting of the barley, which produces a beer known as black malt. It is very dark in color and has a grainy flavor. The distinctive taste of Guinness and other Irish stouts is a result of the unique properties of the water.

and produces a higher percentage of plump grains than six-row (see Figure 8.4 for a closeup of six-row barley). Except for a few beer malts made from wheat (and so-called wheat malts, which are made from half barley and half wheat), all are barley malts. The sprouted grain creates enzymes that break down the grain’s starch molecules into simpler sugar molecules; these, in turn, break down into alcohol and CO2 when attacked by the yeast. The drying process is called kilning because it takes place in a kiln. After drying, the malt is roasted, which gives the final brew much of its character. This can be compared to another grain product: bread. If you toast bread at a low temperature for a short time, it looks and tastes different than it does when you burn it. Malt is made in every possible gradient, from barely toasted to burnt.

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The lightest malts give beer a golden color and slightly sweet flavor; higher roasting temperatures enable malt to take on rich, dark colors, and such flavors as caramel, coffee, chocolate, and, yes, even toast. Most brewers buy their malt in the form of dried or roasted malt or malt extract; many cheaper beers use malt extract. Anheuser-Busch InBev, MillerCoors, and some small regional breweries malt their own barley. The malt and the adjuncts provide the sugars to be fermented. In addition to flavor and color, they contribute to the body of the beer and the type of head, or foam, on top when it is poured. The body of the beer contains its nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, and traces of the vitamins riboflavin, niacin, and thiamine.

Hops. Hops look like tiny pinecones waiting to open and grow on tall, thin vines. The hops that give beer its characteristic suggestion of bitterness are the blossoms of the female hop vine. The best are Bohemian hops, imported from Czechoslovakia, but high-quality hops are also grown in the Pacific Northwest; their names, including Willamette and Cascade, reflect their heritage. California’s Sonoma Valley was a prime hop-growing region until winemaking became popular in the 1950s. The blossoms are picked, dried, and refrigerated until used. In brewing, they might also add aroma, depending on how and when they are added.

FIGURE 8.4 Six-row barley. Courtesy U.S. Department of Agriculture. Photo by Jack Dykinga.

Yeast. Yeast causes fermentation, a process that converts sugar into alcohol. There are two categories of brewer’s yeast—ale yeast and lager yeast—and many individual variations within each category. The yeast may impart flavor to the beer. In a bottleconditioned beer (which you will learn more about later), yeast is added just before the beer is sealed in bottles, allowing it to continue to “grow.” The freshness and ripe flavors make this a favorite type of beer, but it does look oddly cloudy when first poured into a glass. The brewer’s yeast is the special laboratory product of each brewer, and its behavior—it is constantly active—is closely watched. Erratic behavior or stray yeast from the air getting into the brew could cause a disaster, requiring the shutdown of a brewery, cleaning and sterilizing the equipment, and starting all over again.

Adjuncts and Additives. The most commonly used adjuncts are rice and corn, and they are very prevalent in American brewing. They give beer a light color and mild flavor, and cost less to use than barley malt. Rice imparts the lightest color to the beer. In general the higher the proportion of barley to adjunct, the more flavor and body in the beer and the better the head. Super-premium beers typically use a higher proportion of barley malt: Michelob, for example, is a blend of 95 percent barley malt and 5 percent rice; Budweiser contains 65 percent barley malt and 35 percent rice. In some European countries, including Germany, Switzerland, and Norway, adjuncts are prohibited by law. Beers are made entirely with barley malt in these countries.

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Another type of ingredient has become more common in recent years. Additives are used to stabilize beer foam, prevent cloudiness, facilitate conversion of starch to sugar, prolong shelf life, and/or adjust color. All additives must be substances approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Many brewers, however, continue to produce beers without additives, relying on quality ingredients, efficient production methods, and their own experience to prevent the problems that additives are intended to solve.

The Beer-Making Process Combining the raw ingredients to make beer is a four-step process: mashing, brewing, fermenting, and lagering, or storing, which involves maturing, aging, and conditioning. The first three steps are very similar to the first stages of making whiskey. Figure 8.5 diagrams the whole sequence. Mashing, the first step, converts starches into sugars. The barley malt is ground into grist, which is fed into a container called a mash tun along with hot water. Adjuncts, usually corn or rice are precooked and added to the mash tun. Everything is mixed and cooked together at low temperatures (up to 169°F or 76°C) for one to six hours. During the process, the malt enzymes are activated and turn starches to sugars. Then the grain residue is strained out, and the remaining liquid, now called wort, is conveyed to the brew kettle. Brewing, the second step, is the process of boiling the wort with hops. This step extracts the distinctive hops bitterness that makes beer taste like beer. In huge copper or stainless-steel brew kettles, the wort-plus-hops is kept at a rolling boil for 1 to 2½ hours. The boiling also sterilizes the wort and draws out the natural antiseptic elements in the hops that protect beer from spoilage. Malt Cooked adjunct Hot water

Yeast Starting tank

Krausening

Hops Mash tun

Filter

Storage tank

Fermenter Finishing tank Brew kettle

Cooler CO2

Mashing

Brewing

Fermenting

Storing

Finishing

Packaging

FIGURE 8.5 Making beers and ales. Broken arrows indicate alternate ways of carbonizing.

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After brewing, the hops are strained out and the wort is cooled. At this point, the techniques vary according to whether a lager beer or ale is being made. For ales, the wort is cooled to a range of 50°F to 70°F (10°C to 21°C). For lager beers, the wort is chilled to a range of 37°F to 49°F (3°C to 10°C). The third step, fermenting, or converting the sugars into alcohol and CO2, begins when yeast is added. If a lager beer is being made, the yeast settles to the bottom of the fermentation tank, and the action proceeds from the bottom. In beer-making terminology, lager is referred to as bottom-fermented. The yeasts for ales are different strains that work at warmer temperatures; they rise to the surface and work from the top. Ale, therefore, is referred to as top-fermented. The usual fermentation period is a week or more, depending on the type of beer being made. During fermentation, the CO2 given off may be collected and stored under pressure, to be added again at a later stage. Carbon dioxide creates the effervescence in beer. As a beer can or bottle is opened or beer is poured from a tap, the bubbles essentially bounce against the glass and break up, creating the beer’s foamy head. These bubbles are relatively large, and they cause what some people describe as a full or gassy feeling from drinking beer or soft drinks. In the late 1960s, Guinness brewers began using nitrogen in addition to CO2. Nitrogen is an inert gas, colorless and odorless, that creates smaller bubbles and, therefore, less “gassiness” in the beer. Nitrogenated beer is known for its smooth, creamy consistency. The nitrogen is forced out of the beer just before pouring by a special restrictor disk in the tap. Lagering (from the German word lagern, which means “to be stored”), the fourth step, means storing or conditioning. This step matures or ripens the beer, mellowing its flavor. Some further slow fermentation may also take place, and impurities may settle out. Lagering of beer takes place at near-freezing temperatures and may last several weeks or several months. Ales are ripened, too, but for a much shorter time at warmer temperatures. Both beer and ale are matured in stainless-steel or glasslined tanks. These tanks are commonly called barrels, but they are nothing like the wooden casks in which spirits are aged. A wooden barrel would spoil the beer taste. (Anheuser-Busch uses beechwood chips in its lagering tanks to clarify the beer, but since these are specially cooked and sterilized, they impart no taste.) During lagering, some beers are given a small additional amount of newly fermenting wort, to add zest and carbonation by prompting a little further fermentation. This process is called krausening (from the German word krausen, which refers to the froth that forms in fermenting wort at a certain stage), and is sometimes referred to as natural carbonation. If a beer is not krausened, it may be carbonated instead by adding the stored CO2 at the end of the lagering period. Of the three major types of alcoholic beverages, beer alone retains the carbonation of its fermentation as an essential characteristic—that distinctive head of foam in the glass.

Beer Packaging After storage the beer is filtered and then kegged, bottled, or canned. Kegs or half barrels (15½ gallons), provide bar supplies of draft beer (the British, and many purists and craft brewers, spell it draught).

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Draft beer comes straight from the keg and is dispensed through a line and tap into a glass. (You will learn more about the care and correct use of beer kegs later in this chapter.) The latest innovation in keg design is a 1/6-barrel keg that holds 4.75 liters, or about 20 servings. It was introduced by Heineken as a space saver and includes its own CO2 cartridge. Proponents claim that this keg can keep beer fresh for three weeks and can be placed between regular-sized kegs, thereby enabling bars to offer more beers on tap without requiring extra cooler space. The smallest keg is now being used by many microbreweries. A full-sized (15½-gallon) keg should yield about 200 pint glasses of beer; the smaller kegs’ output can be estimated accordingly. Buying in small quantities costs more, which means that you will have to charge more for the beer, but the low-volume keg should guarantee higher-quality beer. Draft beer’s remarkable revival is a combination of new brands, microbreweries, packaging innovations, mandatory bottle-deposit legislation in some states, and old-fashioned merchandising efforts in taverns and restaurants. While most bars still serve more bottled beer—people like to see the label, and want other people to see the label and admire their taste in beer—draft beer has a much greater markup, ounce for ounce, than bottled or canned beer. Variety, selection, and freshness are the buzzwords that bartenders use to push draft beer. They say that the most flavorful brews are best served fresh and unpasteurized. Bars that have a greater number of beers on tap sell more beer overall. The latest trend is to serve beer straight from the keg it was brewed in; this is called cask-conditioned beer. Cask conditioning is a secondary fermentation of the beer that involves adding some yeast and priming wort to the wooden cask. The beer is served directly from the cask, called a firkin, that sits on the bar and is hand-pumped. But most often draft beer is stored in stainless-steel kegs. America’s favorite beer container appears to be the seamless aluminum can. The standard-size aluminum can contains 12 ounces, but some beers sell well in the oversized 25-ounce “oil can.” Beer has been canned since 1935 when Gottfried Krueger, a New Jersey brewer, tried it and was rewarded with sales of more than five times the previous year! Can openers were required until 1962, when the first pull-tabs were introduced. Today’s featherweight aluminum cans are quite different from the first chunky steel cans that debuted in the 1930s. The aluminum cans protect their contents from sunlight and oxygen, and the insides and lids are coated with a water-based epoxy to prevent any “tinny” taste. Anheuser-Busch InBev unveiled its “aluminum bottle” in 2004, and it caught on so well that by 2006, sales were outpacing suppliers’ ability to provide the bottles. The company has said people seem to enjoy the “tactile experience” of the container, and it works well for events at which glass containers are not permitted. It is also resealable and recyclable. (In Asian markets, where aluminum bottles were first introduced, they are called bottlecans.) Bottles now come in a variety of sizes. The 12-ounce glass bottle accounts for the bulk of packaged beer sales, but there are also 16-, 20-, and 40-ounce sizes, some with wider mouths. Consumer research shows that female customers like the widermouth bottles, finding them easier to drink from. In 1998, Miller (now SABMiller) became the first brewery to sell beer in plastic bottles. After a year of test marketing, the company released 16- and 20-ounce plastic bottles. Like aluminum containers,

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these are convenient for places where glass containers are often forbidden, like beaches, swimming pools, and stadiums. Plastic bottles also are resealable, and oneseventh the weight of a comparably sized glass bottle. Concessionaires at sporting events say plastic bottles are a big hit, keeping the product cooler than in Styrofoam cups and less likely to spill. There are two keys to their wider potential for use, however. One is the growing backlash from “eco-friendly” consumers about the use of plastic bottles for any type of beverage and the sea of plastic waste that manufacturers have created. The other is the ability of the bottles to keep beer tasting fresh and fizzy by keeping oxygen out. Plastic is slightly permeable and, for bottling beer, it must provide a barrier about twice as effective as a container for bottled water. The plethora of beer-packaging options means that bar managers must do careful research to decide what to stock. Your decision will depend on your storage space and what size, style, or shape of container your customers like best. Market research indicates, for example, that Latino customers prefer beer in bottles. Strong, aromatic brews, such as stouts and porters, are available in cans and bottles, but serving them from anything but a tap might be a disservice to the true beer aficionado. Some of the cans and bottles contain a marble-sized widget, which releases a squirt of gases (CO2 and nitrogen) into the beer when first opened. This in turn creates a rush of foam that is supposed to replicate what would happen if the beer were drawn from a tap. Whether this is an option for your bar depends entirely on the sophistication level and expectations of your customers. The recycling program in your area also may impact your decision because a bar creates a lot of solid waste with cans and bottles.

Pasteurization Most canned and bottled beers are stabilized by pasteurizing, which means exposing them in the container to temperatures of 140ºF to 150ºF (60ºC to 66ºC) for 20 minutes to an hour. This heating process kills bacteria and any remaining yeast cells. Some draft beers might be flash-pasteurized with steam, but most are not pasteurized at all. This is why they taste better than canned or bottled beer. It is also why they are packaged in metal kegs that will withstand the increased pressure that may come from slight continuing fermentation, and why they are kept refrigerated constantly from brewery to bar. The constant cold temperature is essential to maintaining the quality of an unpasteurized beer. A beer that has been warmed and cooled again is known as a bruised beer; it suffers a loss in quality. Some canned and bottled beers are not pasteurized. Instead the beers are passed through ultrafine filters that remove yeast cells and other impurities. Thus it retains many of the characteristics of draft beers and may be labeled and advertised as draft beer. Coors (now Molson-Coors) brands are the best-known examples of unpasteurized beers. They are made under hospital-clean conditions, and not only kegs, but cans and bottles are shipped and stored under refrigeration. Unpasteurized beers must be kept cold every step of the way until they are consumed. However, many people, including some delivery personnel, are not aware of this and store the bottles and cans at room temperature. Unpasteurized beer should not be accepted on

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delivery if it is not cold. Under federal regulations, pasteurized beers in cans or bottles may refer in advertising to draft flavor or on-tap taste only if the label clearly states that they have been pasteurized; they may not be called draft beer. The difference is subtle, and although most consumers probably are not aware of these label nuances, anyone running a bar should be.

TYPES OF BEER There are at least 5,000 breweries in the world producing some 15,000 brands of beer, which (as mentioned earlier) are categorized into two basic types: lagers (bottomfermented) and ales (top-fermented). Within these two broad categories are many different styles. We discuss the major ones here.

Lager-Beer Styles and Products As you have already learned, lagern is German for “to store” or “to stock.” The term refers to the long period of time during which the beverage is stored as it undergoes its slow second fermentation. This process produces a beer with a thinner body and dry, subtle flavors. Before the invention of refrigeration, lager beers were very unstable in warm weather. German brewers did not make them in the summer and stored their beer in the caves of the Bavarian Alps. The brewers noticed that after some months in cold storage, the beer gained a permanent stability because the yeast had sunk to the bottom. Some beers are simply labeled lagers, but there are several major subclassifications, including pilsner-style beer, light beer, malt liquor, bock beer, steam beer, and a few seasonal beers. You can glimpse the whole family in Figure 8.6. With the assistance of the Beer Judge Certification Program guidelines, we will attempt to describe each type of beer (although tasting them will provide additional insight!). Lagers made by macrobreweries are generally either standard or premium. The difference is the amount of adjuncts, or filler-type grains, used in the blend: up to 40 percent rice or corn in standard lagers, and up to 25 percent rice or corn in premium lagers. Lagers are highly carbonated and pale in color, and their white, frothy head dissipates quickly in the glass. Examples of standard American-style lagers are Budweiser and Miller High Life. Brewers in other countries also use this style, in such products as Corona Extra, Kirin Lager, and Foster’s Lager. Premium lager examples include Beck’s, Heineken, Michelob, Miller Genuine Draft, and Stella Artois. Generally they contain from 3.2 to 4.5 percent alcohol by weight (4 to 5 percent by volume). Light beers are variants of the crisp, dry American lager style. These beers were practically dismissed as a fad when Miller acquired the rights to the name Lite in 1972, but today four of the five top-selling brews in the United States are low-calorie products. How low? Figure 8.7 shows the difference in calories between a typical

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BEER STYLES Lager Family Tree Lager Family (Bottom Fermenting Yeasts)

“Lager”

Vienna Type

Munich Pale

Pilsner

Marzen/Oktoberfest

Munich Dark

Dortmunder/Export

Steam Beer

Dark Bock

American Malt Liquor

FIGURE 8.6

Courtesy of Glazer’s Family of Companies, Dallas, Texas.

regular beer and a typical light beer. Fewer calories and less alcohol mean a higher proportion of water, and the brewer’s challenge is to be sure that its beers are still flavorful. As popular as light beer is, the style will always be controversial; “serious” brewers and consumers scoff at these “watered-down” options. The best commercial examples of this genre are Amstel Light, Bud Light, Coors Light, and Miller Lite. When it comes to the sale of light beers, the marketing focus is on lifestyle and health. You will see advertisements that tout these beers as less filling than the heavier microbrews and imports. The campaigns also focus on flavor, promising that a person who chooses a light alternative doesn’t have to bypass taste and quality, in an effort to attract more upscale beer drinkers. The most recent related trend is the introduction of low-carbohydrate beer, with Anheuser-Busch’s Michelob Ultra in 2003. Coors soon followed with Aspen Edge, Labatt debuted Rock Green Light, and now there are dozens. In truth, light beers are low-carbohydrate beers. The U.S. Treasury Department’s Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) has determined that, for the purpose of label accuracy, a “low-carb” beer must contain less than 7 grams of carbohydrates per 12-ounce serving. There is also a dark American lager style of beer, so named for its darker color, which is obtained by roasting a darker malt variety or by adding coloring agents. These beers have a little more body and flavor than standard lagers (and certainly more than the light versions), but they are still highly carbonated in the American lager style. Beck’s Dark, Saint Pauli Girl Dark, Shiner Bock, and San Miguel Dark are examples.

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REGULAR BEER (12 OZ) Calories Protein Fat Carbohydrates Fiber Minerals: Calcium Iron Magnesium Phosphorus Potassium Sodium Vitamins: Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Pant. Acid Vitamin B-6 Folate Vitamin B-12

146 1 gram 0 grams 13 grams

The Bar and Beverage Book, 5th Edition by Chris Thomas and Costas Katsigris - PDFCOFFEE.COM (2024)

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